Foreword

The EU faces a multitude of threats, both within and beyond Europe. We are witnessing a significant geopolitical realignment and escalating tensions worldwide. In this environment, the European Union's role as a global actor and our geopolitical awakening have become more necessary than ever. 

EU Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) missions and operations are crucial instruments in our ambition for a stronger Europe in the world. Over the past two decades, they have been safeguarding Europe’s security by contributing to international stability and protecting EU interests and values globally. 

As you are embarking on your new assignments in one of our missions or operations, I would like to extend my gratitude for your commitment and determination to contribute to a safer Europe and a more stable global order. 

In recent years, the European Union has consolidated its position as a reliable global security provider. At present, over 5,000 dedicated women and men like you are working together under the EU flag in 23 civilian and military missions and operations across three continents. Together, they are promoting global security, responding to crises, and strengthening the capacities of partner countries.

We constantly strive to enhance the effectiveness of our operational engagement across the world, which is also one of the objectives of the EU’s Strategic Compass. To ensure the effectiveness of our missions, it is essential that we choose the right time to deploy the right people equipped with the right skills. Training is therefore of crucial importance. 

I know that you, the women and men deployed in our CSDP missions and operations, are already experts in your respective fields, each having a professional career back home. Our training is tailored to help you adapt your expertise to the specific context of the various missions. As the global landscape evolves, so must our commitment to ensuring that our personnel are equipped with the highest level of targeted preparation. 

This handbook will provide you with essential knowledge and tools to better cope with an evolving global environment and will be a vital resource during your deployment in the field. Many of you already bring a wealth of experience to your assignments, but each new environment poses unique challenges. This handbook is therefore concise and practical, and aims to help you in your daily tasks by addressing a broad range of real-life situations. For instance, how to navigate cultural sensitivities, understand human rights issues in diverse settings or provide the best advice and training to your local counterparts.  

Your future assignment is at the core of our foreign policy, contributing to the common goal of protecting our Union and making it more resilient at home and abroad. 

I thank you for your commitment and wish you success in all your endeavours.

JOSEP BORRELL

High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy/

Vice-President of the European Commission

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

The Handbook in front of you is a testament to numerous individuals and organisations' collective effort and dedication. In particular, the Secretariat of the European New Training Initiative (ENTRi) project, that was hosted by the Center for International Peace Operations (ZIF) in Germany. They have laid the foundation of this handbook in 2012 and deserve a special recognition. Since then, this handbook has surpassed expectations, taking on a life of its own, thanks to your continuous contributions and support, dear readers.

This edition of the InControl Handbook wouldn’t have been possible without the support of everyone at the Centre for European Perspective, who was coordinating this update, the European External Action Service Peace, Partnerships and Crisis Management Directorate, and the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, who contributed to the creation of the 5th edition.

Our sincere thanks go to the European Union Civilian Training Initiative (EUCTI) Consortium of eight European training institutions: the Austrian Centre for Peace, the Centre for European Perspective, the Clingendael Institute, the Crisis Management Centre Finland, the Egmont Institute, the Folke Bernadotte Academy, the Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna and the Center for International Peace Operations (ZIF). Their understanding of the booklet as an essential piece for every mission member has given the EUCTI Secretariat the energy to compile all the contributions and illustrations. We additionally want to thank the Slovenian Red Cross and Slovenian Police for their contributions and reviews. 

Special thanks goes to all artists, creatives, designers, operators and language editors who helped bring this handbook to life with their invaluable services. 

Last but not least, we would like to express our gratitude to the European Commission’s Service for Foreign Policy Instruments (FPI) for their constant guidance and support.

Introduction
Stash it in your backpack, jam it in your pocket, or save it to your mobile device: This handbook's mission-friendly size, tough exterior and, for those who prefer to store all their information on their phones, clean and readable design, can handle any adventure and stick with you through thick and thin! 

Welcome to the 5th edition of the In Control Handbook, which aims to prepare civilian experts for the demanding and dynamic environment of international crisis management missions. Whether you are a seasoned professional or new to the field, this comprehensive source of knowledge is tailored to support you at every stage of your deployment.

Its seven chapters outline relevant concepts, introduce salient topics and provide guidance and tools for your daily life in the mission, no matter where you are stationed.

Chapter 1 will provide an in-depth look at the major players in the field and explain how missions and their mandates are formed, as well as the organisational structures supporting them. In Chapter 2, you will find an overview of 19 crucial topics and cross-cutting themes central to contemporary peacekeeping efforts, such as human security and human rights, environmental protection, protection of civilians, gender issues and digital communication.

A successful mission relies on preparation. That is why Chapter 3 will help you trace your steps before your deployment, and Chapter 4 will focus on practical solutions for coping with everyday reality in the field, including guidelines on cultural sensitivity and building trust with local counterparts. 

Chapter 5 will help keep you healthy and safe, both physically and mentally. Chapter 6 will teach you how to navigate the local and mission environment with the necessary tools and technical knowledge. The last chapter, Chapter 7, will help you deal with your return from the mission environment and develop strategies for your reintegration.

The text in front of you is a concise and practical overview of what can be a very challenging reality in the field. Crisis management missions deal with increasing demands and the expansion of their mandates, asymmetric threats, geopolitical tensions, humanitarian crises, and natural disasters. Experts deployed to these missions must be flexible to respond quickly and adapt to new realities. This handbook, however imperfect, can help you guide your tailored decisions and make sense of the bigger picture if you let it.

The 5th edition of the In Control Handbook builds on the well-known ENTRi legacy and strives to follow its example. This edition is published by the European Union Civilian Training Initiative (EUCTI) project, which comprises eight European training institutions and is co-funded by the European Union. It aims to provide need-based and tailor-made training courses for civilian experts deployed to international (civilian) crisis management missions and peacekeeping operations. Additionally, it seeks to extend training opportunities and capacity-building workshops to countries that are not yet contributing personnel to EU CSDP missions.

Introduction

Stash it in your backpack, jam it in your pocket, or save it to your mobile device: This handbook's mission-friendly size, tough exterior and, for those who prefer to store all their information on their phones, clean and readable design, can handle any adventure and stick with you through thick and thin! 

Welcome to the 5th edition of the In Control Handbook, which aims to prepare civilian experts for the demanding and dynamic environment of international crisis management missions. Whether you are a seasoned professional or new to the field, this comprehensive source of knowledge is tailored to support you at every stage of your deployment.

Its seven chapters outline relevant concepts, introduce salient topics and provide guidance and tools for your daily life in the mission, no matter where you are stationed.

Chapter 1 will provide an in-depth look at the major players in the field and explain how missions and their mandates are formed, as well as the organisational structures supporting them. In Chapter 2, you will find an overview of 19 crucial topics and cross-cutting themes central to contemporary peacekeeping efforts, such as human security and human rights, environmental protection, protection of civilians, gender issues and digital communication.

A successful mission relies on preparation. That is why Chapter 3 will help you trace your steps before your deployment, and Chapter 4 will focus on practical solutions for coping with everyday reality in the field, including guidelines on cultural sensitivity and building trust with local counterparts. 

Chapter 5 will help keep you healthy and safe, both physically and mentally. Chapter 6 will teach you how to navigate the local and mission environment with the necessary tools and technical knowledge. The last chapter, Chapter 7, will help you deal with your return from the mission environment and develop strategies for your reintegration.

The text in front of you is a concise and practical overview of what can be a very challenging reality in the field. Crisis management missions deal with increasing demands and the expansion of their mandates, asymmetric threats, geopolitical tensions, humanitarian crises, and natural disasters. Experts deployed to these missions must be flexible to respond quickly and adapt to new realities. This handbook, however imperfect, can help you guide your tailored decisions and make sense of the bigger picture if you let it.

The 5th edition of the In Control Handbook builds on the well-known ENTRi legacy and strives to follow its example. This edition is published by the European Union Civilian Training Initiative (EUCTI) project, which comprises eight European training institutions and is co-funded by the European Union. It aims to provide need-based and tailor-made training courses for civilian experts deployed to international (civilian) crisis management missions and peacekeeping operations. Additionally, it seeks to extend training opportunities and capacity-building workshops to countries that are not yet contributing personnel to EU CSDP missions.

1. EU crisis management

The EU refers to crisis management as a general term, which includes various types of action. These may be mentoring, monitoring and advising (MMA) or capacity building in support of security and development, including training activities. EU crisis management is comprised mainly of crisis prevention measures and the deployment of crisis management missions. EU missions can have an executive mandate to act in place of local authorities for certain tasks.

Crisis prevention includes peacebuilding, conflict prevention, and mediation and dialogue. The EU can employ a wide array of external assistance instruments in support of conflict prevention and peacebuilding. Conflict prevention involves early warning, early identification of conflict risks, an enhanced understanding of conflict settings as well as the analysis of crisis response tools. On top of that, the EU can employ specific tools for identifying countries at risk of instability or violent conflict, such as the EU Conflict Early Warning System (EWS) and the Horizon Scanning. Mediation and dialogue push forward a political solution on the ground. In this context, the EU has developed its mediation support capacity, which ranges from high-level political mediation to facilitation and confidence building.

EU crisis management missions are deployed at the request of host countries or within a UN framework and can help in specific fields, such as monitoring borders or fighting piracy. EU crisis management missions support the rule of law (RoL) with a particular emphasis on police, border reforms and capacity building. The EU’s security sector reform (SSR) processes may support the implementation of agreements ending hostilities and sustaining peace. The EU has launched missions to offer strategic advice to host countries on reforming their civilian security sectors. 

2. UN peace and security operations

Conflict prevention

Conflict prevention involves mediation and diplomatic measures to keep intra-state or inter-state tensions and disputes from escalating into violent conflict. It includes early warning, information gathering and a careful analysis of factors driving the conflict.

Conflict prevention by the UN may include the use of the Secretary General’s ‘good offices’, preventive deployment, confidence building, or mediation led by the UN Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA). It may also include support with peace negotiations, assistance in the development of legislation, election monitoring, monitoring of agreements or capacity building, which could include coaching and training for civil society to stimulate non-violent conflict resolution at local or sub-regional levels.

Peacemaking

Peacemaking generally includes measures to address conflicts in progress and usually involves diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement. Peacemaking efforts may be carried out through the Secretary General’s “good offices” by envoys, governments, groups of states, regional organisations or the UN, as well as by unofficial or non-governmental management, judiciary, correctional services, customs or prominent personalities. 

Peacekeeping

Traditional UN Peacekeeping Operations (e.g. UNTSO, UNMOGIP, MINURSO) are designed to stabilise and establish peace, however fragile, and to monitor that the agreements achieved by the peacemakers are being put into practice. Peacekeeping has mostly been assigned to UN (multidimensional) peace operations and includes a variety of multidimensional tasks, which help to establish the foundations for sustainable peace and may include a robust peacekeeping mandate to protect civilians. Modern peacekeeping missions often involve police, military and civilian actors who work in close collaboration with other UN institutions, such as the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).

UN peacekeeping measures follow three guiding principles: consent of the parties, impartiality and the non-use of force, except in self-defence and defence of the mandate. The office of the UN Secretary-General may exercise its good offices to facilitate a conflict resolution. Furthermore, today’s multidimensional peacekeeping facilitates political processes, protection of civilians (PoC), disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) of former combatants, election support, protection and promotion of human rights, and assistance in restoring the rule of law.

A distinction needs to be made between peace and security support operations. Whereas peace support operations are usually based on a peace or ceasefire agreement, security support operations can deploy police forces to restore the rule of law and stability in the country. A recent example is the establishment of the Multinational Security Support Mission in Haiti (authorised by the UN Security Council Resolution 2699), with the main focus on deploying police forces to establish law and order in Port-Au-Prince to hold elections.

Peace enforcement

Peace enforcement involves the use of a range of coercive measures and sanctions up to the point of military force when a breach of peace has occurred. It requires the explicit authorisation of the UN Security Council (UN SC). Its use, however, is politically controversial and remains a means of last resort. The enforcement of peace is regulated by Chapter VII of the UN Charter. For its authorisation, the UN SC must first determine a threat to international security, the existence of a breach of peace or an act of aggression according to Article 39 of the UN Charter. A legally binding resolution for all Member States (MS) requires the affirmative votes of nine out of the 15 UN SC members, including the affirmative votes of all five permanent members. It includes the long-term development and application of conflict transformation tools to prevent a relapse into violent conflict. It addresses issues that affect the functionality of state and society and enhances the capacity of states to effectively and legitimately carry out their core functions.

Multidimensional peace operations combine peacekeeping measures with peacebuilding elements. It requires coordinated action by international actors as well as the early participation of local parties. Peacebuilding activities are supported, for example,  through programmes for SSR, stabilisation and recovery strategies, human rights, justice and corrections services, mine actions, and DDR. Many missions also provide support for the (re-) establishment of electoral processes.

• United Nations Peace Operations. “Manual. Police Mentoring, Monitoring and Advising in Peace Operations. New York. 2017. https://police.un.org/sites/default/files/sgf-manual-mma_2017.pdf
• Hunt, C. T., et al. (2024). UN Peace Operations and Human Rights: A Thematic Study. Center for Civilians in Conflict. Retrieved from https://civiliansinconflict.org/publications/research/report-un-peace-operations-and-human-rights/ 
• United Nations Peacekeeping. (n.d.). Terminology. United Nations. Retrieved May 21, 2024, from https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/terminology 
• United Nations. (n.d.). Policy. Peacekeeping Resource Hub. Retrieved May 21, 2024, from https://peacekeepingresourcehub.un.org/en/policy 
• United Nations. (2023). The Secretary-General's report on special political missions. United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. https://dppa.un.org/sites/default/files/sg_report_on_spms_a-78-307.pdf 

1. The European Union (EU)

The EU has long been engaged in crisis management, development cooperation and humanitarian aid. As part of the process of integrating states that are interested in admission into the Union, the EU employs instruments for stability and promotes measures for conflict resolution, reconciliation and democratisation. Since the establishment of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) in 1993 and the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999 (renamed the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) with the Lisbon Treaty in 2009), the EU can apply military and non-military measures. The crucial strategic document for CFSP and CSDP is the EU Global Strategy (EUGS). Released 13 years after the release of the European Security Strategy (2003), it intends to guide the EU’s future activities in foreign affairs, defence, humanitarian aid, as well as trade or development cooperation. The EUGS, adopted by the European Council on 28 June 2016, has been followed by a set of guiding documents to help the EU operationalise its civilian and military interventions. The CSDP is thus one of many tools in the EU’s external relations toolbox. The CSDP – also referred to as ‘crisis management’ – allows the EU to deploy civilian, police and military personnel in missions and operations outside the EU, including joint disarmament operations, humanitarian aid and rescue operations, security sector reform, law enforcement, rule of law capacity building, military advice and assistance tasks, conflict prevention and peacekeeping, and tasks for combat forces in crisis management, which include peacemaking and post-conflict stabilisation.

Through an integrated approach, the CSDP strives to employ these measures in the earliest and most preventive way possible. The EU’s civilian and military instruments are clearly defined in the Treaty on the European Union (TEU). The EU is not autonomous in the use of these instruments but depends on the decision-making processes of its MS. The instruments are assigned to the European External Action Service (EEAS) under the direction of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and the Vice-President of the European Commission (HR/VP). The EEAS has organisational structures for the planning, conduct, supervision and evaluation of CSDP instruments. The EU MS decide about the use of all assets and resources they own in this field.

CSDP missions and operations have become a pivotal instrument of the EU’s CFSP. Since the first deployment in 2003, civilian CSDP missions have varied in scope (e.g. police, justice, security sector reform), nature (e.g. capacity building, training, executive tasks), geographic location and size. CSDP missions are always political tools and are conceived and controlled by the EU Member States through the Political and Security Committee (PSC), which exercises political control and strategic direction over CSDP missions.

Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)

The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) of the EU, established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, aims to preserve peace and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the UN Charter, to promote international cooperation and to develop and consolidate democracy and the rule of law, as well as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Member States of the EU define the principles and general guidelines for the CFSP. On this basis, the European Council adopts decisions or common approaches.

To make this handbook user-friendly and to enable the reader to quickly look up terms and actors, the following description of structures and actors does not reflect the actual hierarchy within the organisation but puts important instruments such as the Neighbourhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument (NDICI – Global Europe) next to an institutional actor such as the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC), the headquarters for all civilian missions.

For a closer look at the planning processes, please consult Section C on the establishment of different missions.

Structures and actors involved in the CFSP include:

European Council

The heads of state or government of the 27 EU Member States meet four times a year in the European Council, which has become an institution in its own right with the implementation of the Lisbon Treaty. The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and the President of the Commission also attend these summits. The European Council plays an important role in defining the EU’s political priorities and direction. At these summits, the heads of state or government agree on the general orientation of European policy and make decisions about problems that have not been resolved at a lower level. The European Council’s decisions have great political weight because they indicate the wishes of the MS at the highest level.

Council of the European Union

The Council of the European Union is the EU’s decision-making body, in conjunction with the European Parliament (EP). It meets at the ministerial level in nine different configurations, depending on the subjects discussed. It has legislative, executive and budgetary powers. The Foreign Affairs Council, which discusses the CFSP and the CSDP, meets monthly, bringing together the ministers of foreign affairs. Since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, it has been chaired by the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is also Vice-President of the European Commission. Twice a year, and when needed, the ministers of defence are also invited. All the Council’s work is prepared or coordinated by the Committee of the Permanent Representatives of the Governments of the Member States to the European Union (COREPER).

European Parliament and national parliaments

The European Parliament (EP) is an important forum for political debate and decision-making at the EU level. The Members of the EP are directly elected by voters in all MS to represent people’s interests considering EU law-making and to make sure other EU institutions are working democratically.

The EP acts as a co-legislator, sharing with the Council of the European Union the power to adopt and amend legislative proposals and to decide on the EU budget. It also supervises the work of the European Commission (EC) and other EU bodies and cooperates with national parliaments of EU countries to get their input. The EP sees its role not only in promoting democratic decision-making in Europe but also in supporting the fight for democracy, freedom of speech and fair elections across the globe.

The Treaty of Lisbon set out for the first time the role of national parliaments within the EU. National parliaments can, for instance, scrutinise draft EU laws to see if they respect the principle of subsidiarity, participate in the revision of EU treaties, or take part in the evaluation of EU policies on freedom, security and justice.

High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR/VP)

The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR), who is also Vice-President of the European Commission (VP), conducts the EU’s CFSP. The role of the HR/VP is to provide greater coherence in the CFSP as well as greater coordination between the various institutional players, particularly the Council and the EC. Furthermore, the HR/VP chairs the Foreign Affairs Council and exercises authority over the EEAS. 

The European External Action Service (EEAS)

The European External Action Service (EEAS) was established to ensure the consistency and coordination of the EU’s external action. This service, at the disposal of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and Vice-President of the European Commission (HR/VP), is one of the major innovations of the Lisbon Treaty. Composed of officials from the services of the Council’s General Secretariat and of the Commission, as well as personnel seconded by national governments and diplomatic services, its task is to enable greater coherence in EU external action, including Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) missions, by providing the HR/VP with a whole range of instruments. The former delegations and offices of the European Commission became integral parts of the EEAS and represent the EU in about 140 countries around the world. EU delegations and CSDP missions have a growing need for close cooperation in countries where both are located. Cohesion creates added value and enhances the EU’s impact in the country and the region. The crisis management structures of the EEAS underwent reform and, in 2024, consist of the Managing Directorate for Peace, Security and Defence (MD-PSD) under the Deputy Secretary General for Peace, Security and Defence (DSG DEF), containing the Directorate for Peace, Partnerships and Crisis Management (PCM) and the Directorate for Security and Defence Policy (SECDEFPOL). In addition, there is the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and the European Union Military Staff (EUMS). 

European Commission (EC)

The European Commission is the EU’s executive body and represents the interests of the European Union. It is fully involved in the work of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). It sits as an observer on the Political and Security Committee (PSC), as well as on various working groups, and it can issue proposals in this capacity, though it is not entitled to vote. It plays an important role in budgetary affairs since it implements the CFSP budget, allocated partly to civilian crisis management missions and to the European Union Special Representatives. Within the European Commission, the Service for Foreign Policy Instruments (FPI) is responsible for the operational and financial management of the budgets for the CFSP and the NDICI, as well as for the implementation of foreign policy regulatory instruments such as sanctions. Moreover, the European Commission supports crisis prevention and crisis management through its enlargement policy, development aid, humanitarian aid and neighbourhood policy.

The EU budget is based on a seven-year multiannual financial framework (MFF). The Commission proposal for the current MFF budget period that started in 2021 has significant increases for, among other things, internal security, defence and science.

Neighbourhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument (NDICI – Global Europe)

The NDICI – Global Europe (NDICI-GE) is a new instrument merging several previous EU financing instruments, including the Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace (IcSP), which supported EU partner countries’ security and peacebuilding initiatives. 

NDICI-GE enables the EU to support actions to promote peace, stability and conflict prevention through its 2021–2027 Peace, Stability and Conflict Prevention thematic programme, one of the four thematic programmes. The programme has two intervention areas: assistance for conflict prevention, peacebuilding and crisis preparedness and addressing global, trans-regional and emerging threats. Both areas complement actions under NDICI-GE geographic and rapid response pillars as well as the European Peace Facility’s activities in a multidimensional and conflict-sensitive way to contribute to the achievement of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Sustainable Development Goals. 

The Peace, Stability and Conflict Prevention thematic programme serves as a tool to strengthen Europe’s role as a global leader by focusing on capacity-building measures for conflict prevention, peacebuilding and crisis preparedness. Additionally, it supports strengthening partnerships with other entities, such as international and regional organisations, public bodies, and civil society organisations, to jointly address global, trans-regional and emerging threats.

European Union Special Representatives

The European Union Special Representatives (EUSRs) support the work of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy in troubled countries and regions. They play an important role in:

• Providing the EU with an active political presence in key countries and regions, acting as a ‘voice’ and ‘face’ for the EU and its policies;
• Developing a stronger and more effective EU Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP);
• Supporting the EU’s efforts to become a more effective and coherent actor on the world stage;
• Local political guidance.

The EUSRs are appointed by the Council based on recommendations by the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.

Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP)

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) enables the EU to take a leading role in peacekeeping operations, conflict prevention and strengthening of international security.

Operational Range

The so-called Petersberg tasks describe the operational range of the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). The original tasks were expanded and enshrined in the 2009 Treaty of Lisbon (TEU Art. 42) and include:

• Humanitarian aid and rescue operations;
• Conflict prevention and peacekeeping;
• Military crisis management tasks (e.g. peacemaking, joint disarmament operations, military advice and assistance, post-conflict stabilisation).

Financing and Recruitment

Two basic principles guide financing and recruitment. Civilian missions under the CSDP are financed by the CFSP budget, which covers personnel costs (e.g. per diems, other allowances for seconded staff, salaries for contracted staff), maintenance costs and assets. The costs of military CSDP operations are since 2021 financed through the so-called European Peace Facility (EPF) in part by the Member States participating in operations following the ‘costs lie where they fall’ principle and in part by all Member States through the EPF Operations pillar (=common costs).

Regarding the recruitment of personnel, the principle for both civilian and military CSDP missions and operations is that of secondment – staff are deployed by their national governments, which transfer their authority to the relevant missions and operations for the period of deployment. However, certain kinds of niche expertise (e.g. administration and finance, rule of law) are not readily available for secondment. Civilian CSDP missions, therefore, also have the option of employing international and local contracted staff.

Political and Military Structures 

In order to enable the European Union to fully assume its responsibilities for crisis management, the European Council decided to establish permanent political and military structures in 2000, as outlined below.

The Political and Security Committee (PSC) meets two to three times a week at the ambassadorial level as a preparatory body for the Council of the EU. Its main functions are keeping track of the international situation and helping to define policies within the CFSP, including the CSDP. It prepares coherent EU responses to crises and exercises its political control and strategic direction.

The European Union Military Committee (EUMC) is the highest military body within the Council. It is composed of the Chiefs of Defence of the Member States, who are regularly represented by their permanent military representatives. It has a permanent chair selected by the Member States. The EUMC, supported by the EU Military Staff (EUMS), provides the PSC with advice and recommendations on all military matters within the EU. Its chair is the military adviser to the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy on all military matters and is the primary point of contact for operation and mission commanders of the EU’s military operations.

For advice on civilian crisis management, the PSC relies on the Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (CIVCOM). This committee is the Council’s working group dealing with civilian aspects of crisis management; it receives direction from and reports to the PSC. 

The PSC is assisted by the Politico-Military Working Group (PMG), and its meetings are prepared by the Nicolaidis Group. The Nicolaidis Group meets twice a week, always on the day before a PSC meeting, and Member States are represented by close associates of the PSC ambassadors. 

Since the Treaty of Lisbon, these groups have been chaired by a representative of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy or the European External Action Service (EEAS).

The Foreign Relations Counsellors Working Group (RELEX) or Foreign Relations Counsellors is a working group with horizontal responsibility for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). It is chaired by a ‘rotating presidency’. The presidency of the Council of the European Union is taken in turn by each Member State according to a rotation system for a period of six months. The order of rotation is determined unanimously by the Council of the EU based on the principle of alternating between ‘major’ and ‘minor’ Member States. The presidency ‘rotates’ on 1 January and 1 July each year. RELEX prepares all legal acts in the CFSP area and is, in particular, responsible for examining their legal, financial and institutional implications. It reports to the COREPER, which passes relevant documents for decision to the Council for approval.

Crisis Management Structures

The crisis management structures of the European External Action Service (EEAS) consist of the Managing Directorate for Peace, Security and Defence (MD-PSD), the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and the European Union Military Staff (EUMS), outlined below.

The MD-PSD consists of the Directorate for Peace, Partnerships and Crisis Management (PCM) and the Directorate for Security and Defence Policy (SECDEFPOL).

The Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) serves as the single-standing operations headquarters for all civilian CSDP missions. Each executive military operation is activated by an individual Member State-owned operational headquarters. Alternatively, the EU Operations Centre can be involved, or the EU can turn to NATO command structures under the Berlin-Plus agreements. However, military operations with a non-executive mandate, such as military training missions, operate under the command of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC). MPCC, serving within the European Union Military Staff (EUMS), warrants cooperation and coordination between military and civilian actors through the Joint Support Coordination Cell (JSCC).

The Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) has a mandate to carry out the following activities:

• Plan and conduct CSDP civilian missions under the direction of the Political and Security Committee (PSC).
• Provide assistance and advice to the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR/VP), the Presidency and the relevant EU Council bodies.
• Direct, coordinate, advise, support, supervise and review civilian CSDP missions.

The CPCC works in close cooperation with other crisis management structures within the EEAS and the European Commission.

The director of the CPCC, as the civilian operations commander, exercises command and control at the strategic level for the planning and conduct of all civilian crisis management missions under political control and strategic direction of the PSC and the overall authority of the HR/VP.

As the permanent Operational Headquarters (OHQ), the CPCC commands and controls all civilian CSDP missions and ensures the duty of care. It serves as a hub for information flowing from the field, coordinates between the missions and other EU actors in Brussels, and processes lessons from the complex mandates implemented in very difficult environments.

A substantial part of the CPCC’s work is also reporting to EU Member States on the outcome and impact of missions.

The European Union Military Staff (EUMS) comprises military experts seconded to the EEAS by Member States and officials of the EEAS. The EUMS is the source of military expertise within the EEAS. The EUMS works under the direction of the European Union Military Committee (EUMC) and Member States’ Chiefs of Defence, as well as under the direct authority of the HR/VP. The role of the EUMS is to provide early warning, situation assessment, strategic planning, communications and information systems, concept development, training and education, and support for partnerships. In concert with the EU Military Committee and EEAS partners, the EUMS creates the circumstances in which the military can conduct their operations and missions together with their civilian partners in the field.

The European Security and Defence College (ESDC) operates within the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). Since its establishment in 2005, it is dedicated to providing training and education at European level and in the field of EU CSDP. The College complements national training efforts and ensures that civilian and military personnel from EU member states are well prepared for their deployment to EU CSDP missions and operations. Through its main activities – coordinating training courses, seminars, exercises and conferences – it promotes a shared understanding of best EU security and defence practices among the EU member states and globally.

Crisis Management Structures

In March 2024, there were 13 civilian missions, 10 military operations and one civilian-military mission. Altogether, 24 ongoing CSDP missions and operations consisting of around 4,000 EU military and civilian personnel. To date, the EU has conducted over 40 missions and operations under CSDP, including 25 civilian missions. 

Civilian missions are supported and supervised by the CPCC in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, covering a large spectrum of tasks, including training, advising, mentoring and monitoring in the fields of police, rule-of-law (RoL) and security sector reform (SSR). EU Member States contribute to these missions with seconded national experts drawn mainly from the law enforcement and justice sectors.

Executive military operations are commanded and controlled by activated EU Operational Headquarters, while military operations with a non-executive mandate operate under EUMS – MPCC. Their spectrum of tasks includes operations at sea to counter piracy (e.g. off the coast of Somalia) or disrupt human smuggling and trafficking networks (e.g. the Mediterranean); providing capacity-building, training support or military assistance to armed forces (e.g. in Mali, Somalia, Central African Republic); and, if needed, creating a safe and secure environment (e.g. in Bosnia-Herzegovina). In future, Member States may appoint more joint civilian-military missions. The EU military mission in the Central African Republic, for example, has a civilian component.

As the EU Global Strategy has adapted in recent years to the changing security environment, the defence and military aspects of CSDP have been well developed. PESCO projects (Permanent Structured Cooperation in security and defence between Member States), contributing to the implementation of the Strategic Compass, are ongoing, and the new MFF suggests that EU funding for military capabilities will be regularly reviewed. 

Important Documents

Strategic Compass for Security and Defence on 47 pages, approved by the Council of the EU in March 2022, establishes a common strategic vision for the EU’s security and defence. It emphasizes the need for resilient and reinforced civilian and military CSDP missions and operations. Furthermore, it reiterates the Member States’ commitment to strengthen the civilian CSDP by adopting a new version of the Civilian CSDP Compact, allowing for faster response to different types of crises. 

The new Civilian CSDP Compact adopted on 22 May 2023 is a successor of the 2018 Compact and closely follows the premises determined in the 2022 Strategic Compass. It is essentially an agreement between the Member States, the European Council, the EEAS and the European Commission services, cementing their commitment to strengthen and enhance the effectiveness and capabilities of civilian CSDP missions. The set deadline for the full implementation of the Compact is in mid-2027. During the implementation process, Member States will need to update their national implementation plans (NIP), developed after the adoption of the 2018 Civilian CSDP Compact.

In December 2023, the Council of the EU approved the conclusion on civilian CSDP, underscoring the added value of civilian CSDP missions in the current geostrategic environment. It also welcomed the initiative to set up a Civilian Capability Development Process in 2024, emphasised training as a crucial element of capability development and endorsed the joint civilian-military approach to it, realised through the joint civilian-military CSDP Training Programme stemming from the 2022 revised Implemented Guidelines for the EU Policy on Training.

It is important to note that the EU CSDP Training Programme has a list of training courses on the Schoolmaster platform. The platform is used by diverse training providers to share training opportunities for both civilian and military CSDP.

2. UN peace and security operations

United Nations consists of three pillars: Human Rights and Humanitarian Issues, Sustainable Development and Peace and Security. For 75 years, UN peace and security operations have comprised various missions and interventions, employing more than two million uniformed and civilian personnel worldwide. The two most well-known are peacekeeping operations and special political missions, explained further in the text.

In 2023, the UN celebrated 75 years of peace operations with the slogan “Peace begins with me”. This year was also the year of A New Agenda for Peace, presented in July 2023 by Secretary-General António Guterres. The Agenda is the 9th Policy Brief of the 2021 UN Common Agenda that calls for reinforced multilateralism, global solidarity, sustainable development and enhanced forward thinking. The New Agenda for Peace outlines a strategic vision for strengthened multilateral peace and security efforts grounded in trust, solidarity and universality. It focuses on conflict prevention, regional approaches and heightened responsiveness to reflect the global (security) challenges and threats. 

In the last decades, several key reform initiatives have shaped UN peace operations, as outlined below.

The Brahimi Report

In March 2000, the Secretary-General appointed the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations to assess the existing system’s shortcomings and to make specific and realistic recommendations for change. The panel was led by Lakhdar Brahimi, a senior Algerian United Nations diplomat, and was composed of individuals experienced in conflict prevention, peacekeeping and peacebuilding. The panel noted that to be effective, UN peacekeeping operations must be properly funded and equipped and must operate under clear, credible and achievable mandates. The Brahimi Report is seen as a crucial document of the reform of UN peace operations, proposing measures for more sustainable and effective UN peace actions.

High-level Independent Panel on Peace Operations

In October 2014, the Secretary-General appointed a High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (HIPPO) to make a comprehensive assessment of the state of UN peace operations at present and the emerging needs of the future. This panel was the first to examine both peacekeeping operations and special political missions. The panel’s report was presented to the Secretary-General on 16 June 2015. Based on its analysis of weak spots in peace operations, the HIPPO report suggested four major shifts:

1. The primacy of political solutions. Peace operations must be incorporated into a comprehensive political strategy, including solutions to achieve lasting peace.
2. Spectrum of peace operations. The UN must be able to deploy its full spectrum of peace operations more flexibly and adapt quicker to changing conditions.
3. Global and regional partnerships for peace and security. Stronger and more inclusive partnerships with regional and sub-regional organisations are needed.
4. More field-focused UN Secretariat and more people-centred UN peace operations. Ensuring faster, more efficient and more effective peace operations will enable UN personnel in field missions to better serve the people they are mandated to assist.

In response, the Secretary-General presented his implementation report, The Future of United Nations Peace Operations. This report endorsed an action plan from the HIPPO report, focusing mainly on crisis prevention and mediation, UN cooperation with regional organisations, and the planning and implementation of peace operations.

Action for Peacekeeping

In 2018, the Secretary-General called for collective action through the Action for Peacekeeping (A4P) initiative. A4P aimed to refocus peacekeeping with realistic expectations, strengthen and secure peacekeeping missions, and mobilise greater support for political solutions and well-structured, well-equipped, and well-trained forces.

Consultations with Member States led to the Declaration of Shared Commitments on UN Peacekeeping, which features commitments in seven areas: 

1. Advance political solutions to conflict and enhance the political impact of peacekeeping.
2. Strengthen the protection provided by peacekeeping operations.
3. Improve the safety and security of peacekeepers.
4. Support effective performance and accountability by all peacekeeping components.
5. Strengthen the impact of peacekeeping on sustaining peace.
6. Improve peacekeeping partnerships.
7. Strengthen the conduct of peacekeeping operations and personnel.

On 1 January 2019, the peace and security pillar was restructured as part of a wider reform package launched by the Secretary-General. The overarching goals of peace and security reform were to prioritise conflict prevention and sustain peace, enhance the effectiveness and coherence of peacekeeping operations and special political missions, and move towards a single, integrated peace and security pillar. Furthermore, the reform aimed at aligning peace and security more closely with sustainable development, and human rights and humanitarian issues pillars to create greater cross-pillar coordination.

Peacekeeping operations

The first peace operation, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was deployed in 1948. Since then, over 71 UN peacekeeping operations have been deployed worldwide—12 are currently ongoing. Peacekeeping is not an instrument foreseen in the UN Charter; it was developed in the 1950s out of necessity. 

Over the 75 years of their existence, UN missions have evolved to meet the demands of different conflicts and a changing political and security landscape. Five types or ‘generations’ of peace missions can be distinguished: traditional peacekeeping, multidimensional peacekeeping, robust peacekeeping, missions with an executive mandate and, the most recent, regionalisation of peacekeeping missions with UN support. During the Cold War, traditional peacekeeping missions were the norm: lightly armed UN troops monitored the compliance of the conflict parties with peace agreements or ceasefires, in most cases after conflicts between state actors. These missions were based on the three principles: consent of the parties, impartiality and non-use of force except in self-defence. These missions remain pretty stable, especially compared to other robust PKOs and SPMs.

With the end of the Cold War, conflicts and threats have changed. Most conflicts now take place within states rather than between states, and many are asymmetric in nature. Peace missions have changed accordingly to address the domestic root causes of these conflicts and can now take on peacemaking and peacebuilding roles. Multidimensional peacekeeping missions, therefore, encompass many non-military tasks, such as disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR), security sector reform (SSR), rule of law support, protection of civilians, and human rights monitoring. In addition to military personnel, multidimensional operations also include police and civilian staff.

Since the 1990s, the UN has had to acknowledge that consent-based deployment of lightly armed peacekeepers is insufficient when peace agreements are not held or signed by all conflict parties. In response, the Security Council began to provide missions with so-called robust mandates, empowering them to use force not only for self-defence but also to enforce the mandate. Most current missions fall into this category of robust peacekeeping.

Another type of peacekeeping consists of a small number of missions with so-called executive mandates. In those cases, the UN performs state functions for a limited time, such as in Kosovo and East Timor. Recently, new generations of peacekeeping have brought the establishment of missions mandated by the UNSC, but implemented by multinational forces (as in Haiti) or African Union.

Special political missions

A significant part of the UN´s peace and security work in the field today is carried out by special political missions (SPMs). SPMs, which are primarily civilian, include offices of special envoys and advisers engaged in mediation and dialogue processes, groups of experts monitoring the implementation of Security Council sanctions regimes, regional offices conducting preventive diplomacy, and field missions accompanying complex political transitions and peace consolidation processes in countries such as Colombia, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.

Political missions have carried out good offices, conflict prevention, peacemaking and peacebuilding functions since the early days of the UN, even though these deployments have only been called ‘special political missions’ since the 1990s.

In its early days, the UN deployed a series of high-level mediators or other envoys, either upon request of the General Assembly or the Security Council or in the context of the Secretary-General’s good offices mandate. In the first 15 years of its existence, the UN also designed several field missions, including small political offices carrying out facilitation monitoring and reporting tasks and larger civilian presences to support political transitions, especially in the context of decolonisation and self-determination.

From the late 1960s until the end of the Cold War, the number of new missions mandated by either the General Assembly or the Security Council decreased. While Secretaries-General during this time continued to rely on special envoys and good offices missions, larger field-based civilian missions were rarely deployed.

Post-Cold War political transitions increased the demand for UN civilian support, particularly in areas such as electoral assistance, constitution-making, and the rule of law. From Central America to Africa, new missions were established to help Member States meet those demands.

Contemporary special political missions are deployed in a wide array of contexts, and the diversity of their structures and functions continues to increase. At the time of writing, there are 14 SPMs authorised by the Security Council or the General Assembly assisting in preventing and resolving conflict, coordinating international humanitarian and development aid, as well as helping Member States and parties to end conflict and build sustainable peace.

UN transitions

The UN peacekeeping operations' transition processes involve a strategic shift from peacekeeping to peacebuilding, aiming to ensure sustainable peace and stability in post-conflict regions. For instance, before its withdrawal at the end of 2023, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) focused on transferring security responsibilities to local forces while supporting political and governance reforms. Similarly, the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) is gradually drawing down its military presence and enhancing its support for the Congolese government's capacity-building efforts before its scheduled withdrawal from the country by the end of 2024. In the Central African Republic, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA) is prioritizing the consolidation of state authority and the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of former combatants. 

Additionally, the planned transitions of Special Political Missions like the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI) and the United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia (UNSOM) underscore a broader shift towards supporting political processes, electoral assistance, and the rule of law to foster long-term stability and development in these regions. 

These transitions highlight the UN's adaptive strategies to address evolving on-the-ground realities and ensure a sustainable peacebuilding framework.

Main structures of the UN Peace and Security pillar

Department of Peace Operations 

The Department of Peace Operations (DPO) serves as an integrated centre of excellence for UN peace operations, responsible for preventing, responding to and managing conflict and sustaining peace in the countries where peace operations under its mandate are deployed. This includes facilitating and implementing political agreements; providing integrated strategic, political, operational and management advice, direction and support to peace operations; developing political, security and integrated strategies; leading integrated analysis and planning of peace operations; and backstopping those operations. It consists of three main offices: the Office of Rule of Law and Security Institutions (OROLSI), the Office of Military Affairs and Policy, and the Evaluation and Training Division.

Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs

The Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) combines the strategic, political and operational responsibilities of the previous Department of Political Affairs (DPA) and the peacebuilding responsibilities of the Peacebuilding Support Office (PBSO). DPPA has global responsibility for political and peacebuilding issues and manages a spectrum of tools and engagements across the conflict continuum to ensure a holistic approach to conflict prevention and resolution, electoral assistance, peacebuilding and sustaining peace. It provides strategic, political, operational and management advice, direction and backstopping to all special political missions.

One of DPPA’s essential priorities is supporting the participation of women at all levels of peacemaking, conflict prevention and peacebuilding. The Women, Peace and Security is on the Security Council’s Agenda since 2000, with the adoption of Security Council Resolution 1325 on WPS. DPPA’s SPMs in the field include gender advisers or gender focal points providing internal advice and support. SPM’s external support includes promoting women’s direct participation through advocacy, consultancy, and mediation. Creating strategies for inclusive peace processes includes both internal and external support.

PBSO was founded to support the Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) by providing policy guidance and strategic advice. The PBSO assists the Secretary-General in coordinating the peacebuilding efforts of the different UN agencies. Furthermore, the PBSO administers the Peacebuilding Fund.

Peacebuilding Commission (PBC)

The Peacebuilding Commission was established by the UN Security Council and the UN General Assembly as an intergovernmental advisory body to assist countries in the aftermath of conflict. Its function is to lay the foundations for integrated strategies for post-conflict peacebuilding and recovery. The PBC brings together important actors, namely international donors, national governments, international financial institutions and troop-contributing countries to marshal resources. It provides recommendations and information on development, recovery and institution-building to ensure sustainable reconstruction in the post-conflict period.

Department of Operational Support

The Department of Operational Support (DOS) became operational on 1 January 2019 as part of the Secretary-General’s Management Reform. DOS provides logistical, administrative, technology, and other operational support to almost 100 Secretariat entities worldwide, which includes service delivery and integrated operational support for all peacekeeping operations and special political missions.

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), established in 1993 by the UN General Assembly, is primarily responsible for promoting and protecting human rights worldwide, assist governments, help empower people and mainstream human rights perspective into all UN programmes.

Ensuring respect and promotion of human rights in conflict and post-conflict settings is one of its integral goals. For example, many UN peacekeeping missions include a human rights component that is staffed by OHCHR personnel. Their role is to monitor and report on human rights abuses, provide technical assistance to local authorities, and engage in advocacy to promote human rights within the mission’s area of operation. Additionally, they develop strategies for the protection of civilians, especially vulnerable groups, provide training on human rights standards and practices and support efforts to strengthen rule of law and justice systems.

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)

OCHA is the part of the United Nations Secretariat responsible for bringing together humanitarian actors to ensure a coherent response to emergencies. OCHA also ensures there is a framework within which each actor can contribute to the overall response effect. OCHA’s mission is to:

• Mobilise and coordinate effective and principled humanitarian action in partnership with national and international actors to alleviate human suffering in disasters and emergencies.
• Advocate for the rights of people in need.
• Promote preparedness and prevention.
• Facilitate sustainable solutions.

OCHA’s Civil-Military Coordination Section may coordinate the deployment of Military and Civil Defence Assets (MCDA) from several countries and multinational organisations. It is also responsible for devising the cluster approach, which will be covered in more detail in Section D of this chapter on ‘cooperation and coordination approaches’.

In support of the Joint Steering Committee chaired by the Deputy Secretary-General, OCHA and UNDP are advancing closer humanitarian and development collaboration by working towards collective outcomes over multiple years aimed at reducing need, risk and vulnerability at the country level. 

UN Development Programme

As the United Nations' specialised agency focusing on development, the UN Development Programme (UNDP) has a mandate to support countries in their development path and coordinate the UN system at the country level. UNDP is also active in crisis prevention and recovery, aiming to support countries in managing conflict and disaster risks and rebuilding resilience once a crisis has passed. UNDP crisis recovery work acts as a bridge between humanitarian and longer-term development efforts. UNDP focuses on building skills and capacities in national institutions and communities.

3. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

Encompassing 57 participating states from Europe, Central Asia, and North America, the OSCE is the world’s largest regional security organisation. Founded in the mid-1990s out of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), the OSCE is characterised by its cooperative and comprehensive concept of security (stability, peace and democracy), which aims to improve the living conditions in its participating states.

The OSCE´s comprehensive security concept

Since 1990, the OSCE’s participating states have repeatedly affirmed their commitment to the organisation’s unique concept of comprehensive security. It comprises three dimensions:

1. The politico-military dimension concerns matters such as military security, arms control, combating terrorism and human trafficking, and defence, security, and police reforms.
2. The economic and environmental dimension promotes good governance, environmental awareness, corruption, economic development and the sustainable use of natural resources.
3. The human dimension covers aspects such as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; establishment of democratic institutions; promotion of the rule of law; free, fair and transparent elections; media freedom; education; protection of national minorities; promotion of gender equality; youth participation; improvement of the living conditions and social participation of Roma and Sinti; and promotion of tolerance and non-discrimination.

Additionally, OSCE adopts a cross-dimensional approach, advancing a cooperative and a whole-of-society approach to tackling cross-border security challenges, such as radicalisation and violent extremism, organised crime, cybercrime, migration and climate change.

The OSCE’s functions and decision-making process

All participating states have equal rights and make decisions by consensus. The OSCE’s special status means that these decisions are politically but not legally binding.

Chairmanship, Secretary General, Secretariat and Institutions

The chairmanship rotates annually among OSCE’s participating states. It coordinates the decision-making process and determines the organisation's yearly priorities. The Chairperson-in-Office may appoint Personal or Special Representatives for particular issues, such as youth and gender issues. The Secretary-General, who heads the Secretariat in Vienna, supports the chairperson-in-office.

Important OSCE instruments are:

• Annual Security Review Conference;
• Forum for Security Co-operation;
• Economic and Environmental Forum;
• Human Dimension Implementation Meeting;
• Election observation.

In addition, three independent institutions help monitor the implementation of participating states' commitments and provide early warning: the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights in Warsaw (ODIHR), the High Commissioner on National Minorities in The Hague, and the Representative on Freedom of the Media in Vienna.

OSCE field operations

In early 2024, the OSCE had 13 field operations in Southeast Europe, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. A mission's deployment requires a decision made by the Permanent Council and an invitation by the host country. The mandates are tailor-made and generally aim to support the host country in fulfilling its OSCE obligations in all three dimensions, improving cooperation with the OSCE and enhancing local capacities. Some of the missions contribute to conflict prevention and early warning, while some include monitoring and reporting as part of their mandate. The first mission was deployed to Skopje in 1992 and is still active on the ground. 

OSCE Conflict Prevention Centre (CPC) serves as a bridge between the field operation, the Secretariat and the Chairmanship, providing policy analysis and advice and coordinating OSCE field activities. The creation, planning, restructuring and closing of individual field operations fall under its jurisdiction.

4. The African Union (AU)

The African Union (AU) is an organisation consisting of 55 African states, with its headquarters in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It was established on 9 July 2002 in Durban, South Africa, as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).

The AU has been increasingly engaged in developing African peace and security actions on the continent. It seeks to promote development, combat poverty and maintain peace and security in Africa. For the maintenance of peace, security and stability, the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) was developed, which provides the AU Assembly of Heads of State and Government and its Peace and Security Council (PSC) with mechanisms through which to prevent, manage and resolve conflict situations on the African continent. Notably, the Constitutive Act of the African Union allows for the intervention of the Union in the affairs of its Member States under grave circumstances.

Since its inception in 2002, the AU has initiated almost 30 peace operations on the continent with the support of its regional partners, such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECPWAS) or the Southern African Development Community (SADC). In December 2023, following the UN Secretary-General's New Agenda for Peace, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 2719, creating a framework for strengthened cooperation among the two organisations. 

AU peace support operations

The African Union has worked since 2003 to develop the African Standby Force (ASF), a peace operations capability operated by the AU, the Regional Economic Communities and Regional Mechanisms (RECs/RMs) and Member States. Together with the PSC, the Early Warning System, the Panel of the Wise (PoW) and the Peace Fund, it forms the APSA.

Between 2004 and 2023, the AU deployed peace support operations in Burundi (AMIB), Sudan (AMIS), Comoros (AMISEC), Somalia (AMISOM), the Central African region (RCI-LRA), Mali (AFISMA), the Central African Republic (MISCA), and the Boko Haram-affected areas (MNJTF). The AU has also operated a peace support operation with the UN in Darfur (UNAMID). Current AU-led peace operations include missions in Somalia (ATMIS), Libya, Ethiopia (AU-MVCM), Sahel (MISAHEL) and Central Africa (MISAC).

The AU regularly undertakes conflict prevention missions (e.g. early warning, good offices, ad hoc committees), mediation missions (e.g. Panel of the Wise (PoW), good offices, mediation teams, high-level committees), and post-conflict reconstruction and development missions (e.g. African Solidarity Initiative and liaison offices in post-conflict countries). The AU has, in recent years, also undertaken regional security initiatives, such as in the Sahel (supporting the G5 Sahel joint force) and in Eastern Africa.

AU structures for peace and security

Peace and Security Council (PSC)

The Peace and Security Council (PSC) is comprised of 15 rotating members. It is charged with the maintenance of peace and security in Africa, making use of the APSA to engage in conflict prevention, management and resolution initiatives.

Political Affairs, Peace and Security Department (PAPS)

The Political Affairs, Peace and Security Department (PAPS) of the AU Commission provides support to the efforts aimed at promoting peace, security, stability, good governance, democracy and human rights on the continent. It supports RECs and RMs in their conflict prevention, resolution and management efforts by, among others:

• Continuously monitoring Africa’s political, peace and security trends, assessed through an early warning system.
• Supporting conflict prevention efforts through the development of legal and policy frameworks on political and security issues.
• Providing capacity building and training activities.
• Supporting peace operations and additional peace processes such as mediation and dialogue interventions.
• Supporting post-conflict reconstruction and development strategies.

5. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

NATO is a political and military alliance that brings together 32 member countries from Europe and North America, with its headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. Its essential purpose is to safeguard the freedom and security of its members through political and military means.

It is committed to the principle that an attack against one or several members is considered an attack against all. This principle of collective defence is enshrined in Article 5 of the Washington Treaty. So far, Article 5 has been invoked only once – in response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States.

NATO was founded in 1949 with three purposes: deterring Soviet expansionism, forbidding the revival of nationalist militarism in Europe through a strong North American presence on the continent, and encouraging European political integration. With the end of the Cold War, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the break-up of the Soviet Union, NATO started to develop partnerships with former adversaries and engaged in major crisis management operations.

NATO cooperates with countries from different regions, as well as with other international organisations, such as the United Nations, the European Union, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the African Union. Consultation and cooperation within and beyond the frontiers of its member countries contribute to conflict prevention; however, when diplomatic efforts fail, NATO has the necessary assets to take military action.

According to NATO’s Strategic Concept (2010), the alliance has three main goals: collective defence, crisis management and cooperative security. NATO also develops capabilities to tackle today’s security challenges to protect and defend NATO territory and populations. In early 2018, NATO established a stability police capability co-located with the European Gendarmerie Force in Vicenza, Italy. 

In 2022, NATO adopted the 2022 Strategic Concept, reaffirming the member countries’ commitment to collective defence. Following a changing security landscape, it puts a strong focus on incorporating technological innovation, climate change, human security and Women, Peace and Security in all its activities. It defines three core tasks corresponding to the overarching goals of national and collective resilience:

1. Deterrence and defence;
2. Crisis prevention and management;
3. Cooperative security.

The alliance led its first major crisis-management operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1995. Current operations include Iraq (advisory and capacity building mission since 2018), Afghanistan (since 2003) and Kosovo (since 1999). NATO also deploys military capabilities in support of member countries (e.g. air-policing in the Baltic States, Albania and Slovenia). It contributes to maritime security with three operations (Alliance’s Standing Naval Forces, Operation Sea Guardian and the Aegean Activity) and assists in the aftermath of natural, technological or humanitarian disasters.

1. Mission mandates

A mission mandate is a legal basis on which each mission rests. It is normally agreed upon before deployment by countries or bodies interested in solving the dispute. The UN authorises its peace operations through Security Council resolutions. These resolutions are adopted based on consensus and compromise. In some cases, the divergent political interests of Member States impair decision-making processes. Nearly all peace operations, even non-UN-mandated, are implemented under a UN mandate.

The legal basis for each EU CSDP mission derives from unilateral EU Council decisions that follow either an invitation by the host country or a UN Security Council Resolution and contain the agreed-upon mission mandates. Conflict prevention, peacekeeping, crisis management, training, humanitarian assistance and joint disarmament operations are only a few tasks determined in EU Treaties.

While most UN mission and CSDP mission mandates have been non-executive, some missions have held an executive remit that allowed them to undertake sovereign responsibilities in the country of deployment, including political and administrative duties or even establishing an interim or transitional administration with authority over the legislative, executive and judicial structures of the territory. So far, only three missions of the UN have been executive; in the case of the EU, EULEX Kosovo exercises some executive powers in certain areas of its mandate. However, the UNSC has established multiple ad hoc tribunals with executive mandates, such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR).

Over the years, the range of tasks described in the mission mandate has expanded to reflect changing security threats and conflicts and to include strategies for best responding to these challenges. Many tasks are assigned to cross-cutting issues, such as the participation of women in peace operations, the protection of civilians and the protection of children in armed conflicts. In addition, peacekeepers are mandated to provide electoral assistance, support State authorities in restoration processes, promote human rights, the development and recovery of society and engage in security sector reform activities and disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants.

2. Mission setup: The EU way

Phase 1: Framing options for engagement

Once a crisis has been identified, the Political and Security Committee (PSC) and/or the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR/VP) will initiate the EU’s response. The response in the form of a Political Framework for Crisis Approach (PFCA) is coordinated among several EEAS and European Commission stakeholders – the Peace, Partnerships and Crisis Management Directorate (PCM), the EU Military Staff (EUMS) and the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC). 

The PFCA sets the political context, clearly articulating what the crisis is, why the EU should act and which instruments are available and best suited for the EU’s response. Suitable instruments include economic sanctions, diplomatic actions, mediation, humanitarian aid, development aid or an engagement under the ambit of the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). In line with the ‘integrated approach’, the PFCA offers a wide range of options available to the EU. The drafting of FPCA can be skipped in the case of an urgent situation or if a relevant strategy for CSDP response is already in place.

If there is scope and added value for a CSDP engagement, the PSC or the Council may task the EEAS to further develop possible CSDP options or frame a Crisis Management Concept (CMC). The framing of a CMC is systematically accompanied by input from the UN, NATO and other relevant international organisations. The PCM, previously known as the Integrated Approach for Security and Peace Directorate (ISP), is responsible for strategic planning.

Phase 2: Defining the mission’s goals and scope

PCM’s Strategic planning for crisis management division (PCM.3) leads the politico-strategic planning for crisis management and the process of drafting the CMC, which will determine the scope of needed CSDP instruments. This phase includes frequent consultations between PCM.3 and relevant partners, international organisations, local authorities, and European Commission services. Additionally, it presupposes several fact-finding missions to verify the will of local authorities and research and develop the CMC. For military operations, the European Peace Facility will be activated.

The purpose of the CMC is to analyse and propose CSDP options, describe their strategic aims and objectives, and frame the possible goals and scope of an EU mission. Before the CMC is endorsed by the PCM and approved by the Council, relevant Council bodies – the EU Military Committee (EUMC), the Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (CIVCOM) and the Politico-Military Group (PMG) – provide their advice and recommendations to the PCM.

Depending on the complexity of the crisis, the EUMS or the PCM may be tasked with developing Military or Civilian Strategic Options (MSOs/CSOs). The European Union Military Committee (EUMC) and CIVCOM will evaluate the MSOs and CSOs and advise the PSC accordingly. 

The PSC then agrees to the MSOs/CSOs and tasks the director of CPCC, as the Civilian Operations Commander (CivOpsCdr), to initiate operational planning and recruit the Head of Mission (HoM) and the core team. The PSC also identifies the future military Operational Headquarters (OHQ) for executive military operations and the future military Operation Commander (OpCdr), considering the EUMC's recommendation. For non-executive military mandates, the Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC) is tasked with initiating operational planning.

The result of this phase is the adoption of the Council Decision, determining the mandate of the intervention (mission/operation). Following the Decision, military OpCdr becomes active, and in the case of a military operation, an OHQ is designated. Additionally, third-party states may be invited to participate and to offer contributions, a Status of Forces Agreement/Status of Mission Agreement (SOFA/SOMA) is commissioned, and a first Budget Impact Statement (BIS) for the civilian CSDP mission start-up phase (core team) or the draft reference amount for a budget for a military CSDP operation is adopted as an integral part of the Council Decision.

Phase 3: Detailed planning

In Phase 3, the CivOpsCdr and military OpCdr start determining the manner of mission or operation mandate implementation. EEAS starts the negotiations on SOFA/SOMA.

For a military operation, the EUMS develops an Initiating Military Directive (IMD) at the end of Phase 2 (to be approved by the EUMC) to ensure that the CMC is well translated into military direction and guidance with the appropriate level of detail. Based on the CMC, the Council Decision and the IMD, the military OpCdr drafts a Concept of Operations (CONOPS) and a Statement of Requirements (SOR).

For a civilian CSDP mission, the CivOpsCdr drafts the CONOPS based on the CMC. The CPCC-led planning team directly involves the HoM, the core team and relevant EEAS services. It is also informed by a CPCC-led Technical Assessment Mission (TAM), explaining the drafting of the Rules for the Use of Force (RUoF) and Rules of Engagement (ROE) where applicable, and – in the case of civilian CSDP missions – the regular mission budget. For civilian CSDP missions, the HoM and the core team will be fully involved in the CPCC-led operational planning process.

Based on advice from the EUMC and CIVCOM, the PSC endorses the draft CONOPS, which the Council approves. Based on this, a second set of mission staff is recruited for civilian CSDP missions. The CivOpsCdr and military OpCdr then prepare their respective Operational Plans (OPLAN), following similar technical considerations as CONOPS.

If more rapid decision-making is required, a ‘fast track’ process can be followed, in which the CONOPS is skipped. The minimum requirement for civilian planning is the OPLAN and CMC, while the military planners must also develop an IMD.

Based on advice from CIVCOM and/or the EUMC, the PSC endorses the OPLAN and forwards it to the Council for approval. The Council then adopts a second decision to launch the CSDP mission or operation as soon as initial operational capability (IOC) is achieved (i.e., the minimum requirements to start operations).

Phase 4: Implementation

The fourth phase is implementing the mission, including the further deployment of mission staff to attain full operational capability (FOC). The fourth phase encompasses the deployment of forces, execution of the mandate and periodic reporting to the PSC. The PSC, under the authority of the Council, continues exercising political control and providing strategic guidance to each mission and operation.

In a civilian mission, the CivOpsCdr exercises command and control at the strategic level, while the HoM takes command at the operational level. In an executive military operation, the military OpCdr exercises command and control at the strategic level, and the military Force Commander takes command at the operational level. In military operations with a non-executive mandate, the MPCC is responsible for operational planning.

When the strategic context of the CSDP mission or operation changes at the mid-term of the mandate and/or when the mandate approaches the end date, a strategic review (SR) will be conducted by the PCM, supported by the CPCC, EUMS and other relevant Directorates. The strategic review may result in an extension of the existing mandate, a refocusing of the CSDP engagement or termination of the mission. The last option requires the input of relevant EEAS and Commission services to suggest possible ways to ensure the sustainability of achievements by non-CSDP means.

3. Mission setup: The UN way

Phase 1: Initial consultation

As the UN body carrying paramount responsibility for maintaining international peace and security, the UN Security Council decides on the deployment of a peacekeeping operation. The decision is not universal and is made on a case-by-case basis, considering various factors, such as the country or region's security situation, the existence of a peace process or a clear political goal, and the possibility of a clear UN mandate.

As a conflict develops, worsens, or approaches resolution, the UN frequently engages in several consultations to determine the best response by the international community. These consultations may involve multiple UN actors, including the UN Secretariat, potential host governments, parties on the ground, Member States (that might contribute troops and police), and regional and other intergovernmental organisations.

Phase 2: Strategic assessment and pre-mandate planning

If, after the initial consultations, a peacekeeping operation or a special political mission is being considered, a headquarters-based Integrated Task Force (ITF) is established with the participation of relevant UN departments, funds and programmes. A Secretary-General’s planning directive may be issued if high-level strategic guidance on the expectations of the planning process, parameters, responsibilities, coordination and reporting is required. 

Next, a strategic assessment will be conducted and shall follow the UN-wide Policy on Integrated Assessment and Planning (IAP), first circulated in 2013 and updated in 2023. A strategic assessment is the analytical process used to undertake integrated assessment at the UN system-wide level. It will include a conflict analysis, determining the country’s priorities for sustaining peace, and identifying the options for types of UN engagement. Technical assessments may be conducted to gain clarity on substantive, operational or mission support aspects. If security conditions, time and resources permit, both the strategic and technical assessments will include a field visit. Based on the findings and recommendations of the assessments, the Secretariat planners will draft initial mission concepts and prepare the UN Secretary-General’s report to the Security Council. This report will present options for UN engagement, including the establishment of different types of UN missions and their mandates, sizes and resources.

Phase 3: Security Council resolution

When a dispute or situation is deemed to be a danger to international peace and security based on previous assessments, the UN Security Council may choose to pass a resolution authorising the deployment of a peace operation. Informed by a range of strategic and technical assessments, the Security Council must settle on the specific mandate and size of the operation with at least nine out of 15 votes in favour of each decision. Throughout the operation, the UN Secretary-General regularly reports its progress to the Security Council, which reviews, renews and adjusts the mission’s mandate as required until the mission is terminated.

Phase 4: Appointment of senior officials

The Secretary-General appoints a Head of Mission – in most cases, a Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) – to direct the peace operation (peacekeeping mission or field-based special political mission). The SRSG reports to the Under-Secretary-General for Peace Operations. If a peacekeeping operation is established, the Secretary-General also appoints a Force Commander, a Police Commissioner, as well as senior civilian experts. The DPO and DOS are responsible for selecting civilian staff – international civil servants. Member States’ police and military institutions contribute their staff to perform the tasks of military and police components of a peace operation.

Phase 5: Planning

After issuing the mandate, the Under-Secretary-General for the Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) or the DPA issues a directive to the HoM/SRSG. The purpose of the directive is to provide system-wide strategic direction, establish priorities for sustaining peace, define the configuration of the UN presence and roles and responsibilities, and provide an outline of coordination arrangements as well as basic planning parameters.

With the issuance of the directive to the SRSG, responsibility for planning will transfer to the field. From then on, the SRSG, with the support of the DPO and DOS, is responsible for providing political direction on implementing the mandate and leading the planning process at the political, military, and operational levels. This integrated strategic framework (ISF) includes finalising the mission component concepts and developing an overarching Mission Plan, which covers the context, guiding principles for mandate implementation, overall mission objectives, priorities, pivotal assumptions and risks, mission phases, core deliverables, guidance to components and coordination principles, and resource implications. 

Cooperation between relevant UN departments, funds and programmes results in the establishment of a headquarters-based joint working group known as the integrated mission task force (ITF), which endorses the individual ISF, reviews cooperation frameworks and monitors the implementation of the mission mandate.

The overall UN planning process can be described as broadly comprising four phases: (i) assessment in the context of a start-up, (ii) development of plans, (iii) implementation and monitoring, and (iv) review of existing operations or an assessment of the overall UN presence. The last phase is the responsibility of the UN Security Council, which can renew and adjust the individual mission mandate based on the periodic reports on the status of the implementation of the mission mandate provided by the Secretary-General.

1. The European Union’s comprehensive approach (CA) and integrated approach (IA)

The EU’s Integrated Approach to conflict and crises was first set out in the 2016 EU Global Strategy on Foreign and Security Policy and has since been elaborated in several important strategic policy documents such as the 2022 Strategic Compass for Security and Defence, and most recently the 2023 Civilian CSDP Compact. It remains the guiding principle for EU external action and expresses a commitment to make “full and coherent use of all available EU policies and instruments and maximise synergies and complementarity between internal and external security, security and development, as well as the civilian and military dimensions of [the EU’s] Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP)”. 

The acknowledgement of a need for EU external action to tackle crises in a more coordinated and comprehensive manner and using all its available tools (including diplomatic, legal, development, trade, and economic) existed before it was reinforced in the Treaty of Lisbon. In fact, the 2003 European Security Strategy had already been modelled on the concept of human security. However, it was the Treaty of Lisbon that significantly contributed to the redefinition of the EU’s comprehensive approach by calling for the use of the policies and instruments at the EU’s disposal in a more coherent manner to address the whole cycle, from preparedness and preventive action, through crisis response and management – including stabilisation and peacekeeping – to peacebuilding, recovery, reconstruction and a return to longer-term development.

The integrated approach, which supersedes the comprehensive approach in 2016, is hence a broader concept that expands the scope and reframes the EU’s response to conflicts and crises. The integrated approach moves beyond coordinating only EU instruments and seeks instead to engage all actors in the crisis – from local communities and national players to regional neighbours and global strategic partners. Whereas the comprehensive approach links EU actors horizontally, the integrated approach is more ambitious as it combines both horizontal and vertical dimensions. The integrated approach aims to go beyond a mere operational crisis response and instead ensure a coordinated and sequenced response that covers political, security and economic dimensions, thereby addressing the causes or driving factors of conflicts.

As defined in the EU Global Strategy, the EU’s Integrated approach is:

• Multi-dimensional: drawing on “all available policies and instruments aimed at conflict prevention, management and resolution, bringing together diplomatic engagement, CSDP missions and operations, development cooperation and humanitarian assistance”.
• Multi-phased: “acting at all stages of the conflict cycle, acting promptly on prevention, responding responsibly and decisively to crises, investing in stabilization, and avoiding premature disengagement when a new crisis erupts”.
• Multi-level: to address the complexity and multiple dimensions of conflicts “at the local, national, regional and global levels”.
• Multi-lateral: “engaging all players present in a conflict and necessary for its resolution… partner[ing] more systematically on the ground with regional and international organisations, bilateral donors and civil society” to bring together all actors since “[s]ustainable peace can only be achieved through comprehensive agreements rooted in broad, deep and durable regional and international partnerships”.

2. UN Policy on Integrated Assessment and Planning

The guidance from the UN Sustainable Development Group informs that the United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF) represents the UN development system’s collective offer to support countries in addressing crucial Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) priorities and gaps. The Cooperation Framework serves as a core accountability tool between the UN Country Team (UNCT) and the host Government, as well as between and among UNCT members for collectively owned development results.

The table below represents the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

It begins and ends with an analysis of the national development landscape and SDG priorities, including through the lens of the imperative to leave no one behind. To make the most meaningful contribution to achieving the 2030 Agenda, the Cooperation Framework must be based on a strong UN common country analysis (CCA). 

The UN CCA will identify multidimensional risks that could impact the development trajectory of the country, covering a full spectrum of development, humanitarian, peacebuilding and human rights issues. It is essential to involve all relevant UN entities, including UN special political missions, peacekeeping operations, and humanitarian and human rights entities.

The UNSDCF complements – and is informed by – other pivotal policies and programmatic and legal frameworks, such as the country reviews undertaken by the different UN human rights mechanisms, the Humanitarian Response Plan/Refugee Response Plan and the Integrated Strategic Framework in UN mission settings. 

Similarly, the UN CCA informs the UN Policy on Integrated Assessment and Planning. The purpose of the UN Policy on Integrated Assessment and Planning is to establish the minimum requirements for integrated conduct of assessments and planning in conflict and post-conflict settings where an integrated United Nations presence is in place or is being considered, and to outline the responsibilities of United Nations actors in this process. Integrated assessment and planning processes are intended to maximise the individual and collective impact of the context-specific activities of the United Nations system aimed at sustaining peace. 

The requirements set out in this policy apply in all cases where a multi-dimensional peacekeeping operation or field-based special political mission is deployed alongside a United Nations country team or where such presence is being considered.

The table below presents the UNSDCF cycle.

• Additional information on the UNSDF is available here.
• Additional information on the UN Policy on Integrated Assessment and Planning is available here.
• Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Department of Political Affairs, & Department of Field Support. (2011). Policy on human rights in UN peace operations and political missions. 

3. The UN cluster approach

This section elaborates on the international humanitarian coordination system in place at the UN since 2005 and how it works at a global level in the event of a humanitarian emergency. It also elaborates on the UN mechanism for humanitarian civil-military coordination.

Coordination in emergencies is vital. Good coordination means fewer gaps and overlaps in humanitarian organisations’ work as it ensures a coherent and complementary approach, identifying ways to work together for better collective results.

The basis of the current international humanitarian coordination system was set by General Assembly Resolution 46/182 in December 1991. The Resolution established the post of the Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC), who serves as a focal point for governments, intergovernmental, and nongovernmental organisations on humanitarian issues. He or she also chairs the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), a forum for coordination, policy development and decision-making involving essential UN and non-UN humanitarian partners.

The table below presents the IASC Humanitarian Leadership Structure ¹.

The Humanitarian Reform of 2005 introduced new elements to improve capacity, predictability, accountability, leadership and partnership. Its most visible aspect is the creation of the ‘cluster approach’. Clusters are groups of humanitarian organisations (UN and non-UN) working in the main sectors of humanitarian action, e.g. shelter and health. 

The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) works closely with global cluster-lead agencies and NGOs to develop policies, coordinate inter-cluster issues, disseminate operational guidance and organise field support.

Response & activation of a cluster

In the event of a crisis, the ERC may appoint a Humanitarian Coordinator (HC) to lead the response on the ground. If the emergency requires specialised support, the HC may request that a 'Cluster', a multi-agency group of thematic experts, be activated. The ERC seeks the inter-agency agreement required to activate a Cluster and, through the IASC ², decides which agency should lead it. 

Clusters provide a clear point of contact and are accountable for adequate and appropriate humanitarian assistance. They create partnerships between international humanitarian actors, national and local authorities, and civil society.

Humanitarian Civil-Military Coordination 

The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) is a part of the UN Secretariat and is responsible for providing institutional support to the ERC at the global level. OCHA coordinates humanitarian action, advocates for the rights of people in need, develops humanitarian policy and analysis, manages humanitarian information systems and oversees humanitarian pooled funds. In 1995, OCHA was also designated as the focal point and custodian of related guidelines and policies for UN-CMCoord within the UN system. OCHA’s Civil-Military Coordination Service (CMCS) performs that function on behalf of the humanitarian community and facilitates the appropriate interaction between humanitarian operational partners and armed actors³. CMCS also prepares and deploys dedicated UN-CMCoord experts to the field. It assists in the planning, identification, preparation and deployment of appropriately trained UN-CMCoord personnel⁴. 

•  Recommended Practices for Effective Humanitarian Civil-Military Coordination of Foreign Military Assets (FMA) in Natural and Man-Made Disasters (Sept 2018) 
• Guide for the Military 2.0
• IASC Non-Binding Guidelines on the "Use of Military or Armed Escorts for Humanitarian Convoys”
• Guidelines On the Use of Military and Civil Defence Assets To Support United Nations Humanitarian Activities in Complex Emergencies
• Oslo Guidelines on The Use of Foreign Military and Civil Defence Assets In Disaster Relief

_____________________________________

_{¹ Source : OCHA – United Nations (unocha.org)}

²_{Source: The Emergency Relief Coordinator | IASC (interagencystandingcommittee.org)}

³_{Source: https://www.unocha.org/sites/unocha/files/OOM%20-UNCMCoord.pdf}

⁴_{Source: Humanitarian Civil-Military Coordination | OCHA (unocha.org)} 

1. Human security

Human security refers to the security of people and communities, as opposed to the security of states. In the face of complex geopolitical challenges extending beyond boundaries, states and international organisations have increasingly been recognising the threat to human security as a frame of reference for security policy. In the framework of the human security approach and against the backdrop of fragile states with weak monopolies on the use of force, security policy concepts need to be orientated towards the survival, security and development of individual human beings. Human security equally applies to threats such as poverty and environmental disasters.

The UN Development Programme’s Human Development Report of 1994 defined seven essential dimensions of human security (https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-1994):

1. Physical;
2. Political;
3. Local/communal;
4. Health;
5. Ecological;
6. Economic;
7. Nutritional.

Since 1994, partly through the work of the UN’s Commission on Human Security, this definition has been expanded and nowadays includes freedom from fear, freedom from want, and indignities. With this definition, the use of security policy is on the individual rather than the state, and the concept of security incorporates the development component.

In 2004, an advisory group of the EU’s High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy prepared the Barcelona Report⁵. This report called for commitment to both civilian and military means to address human security. In the subsequent Madrid Report (2007)⁶, the relevance of human security for European missions was further emphasised, and the following principles were formulated:

-    The primacy of human rights;
-    The legitimacy of political authority;
-    Multilateralism;
-    A bottom-up approach;
-    An integrated regional focus;
-    A transparent strategy of international actors.

In 2012, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution on human security⁷ that squarely positioned human security at the intersection of peace, development and human rights. This resolution laid down a common understanding of human security as an “approach to assist Member States in identifying and addressing widespread and cross-cutting challenges to the survival, livelihood and dignity of their people”. This common understanding is constituted by the broad definition of human security as freedom from fear, freedom from want and indignity. 

The UNDP special report from 2022⁸ broadens the scope even further by moving beyond the security of individuals and communities to also consider the interdependence among people and between people and the planet.

Even though basic ideas on human security have entered security policy debates, the concept remains disputed. Critics doubt its practicality and fear the ‘securitisation’ of international politics, as everything could be declared a threat with reference to human security. Currently, two schools of thought exist: one works with a narrower, pragmatic definition (freedom from fear), while the other represents a broader, holistic definition (freedom from fear, freedom from want and freedom from indignity). The conceptual vagueness makes political adaptation difficult. When applied in international cooperation, human security requires an integrated approach to action that covers multiple sectors.

_{⁵ “A Human Security Doctrine for Europe”, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/human_security_report_/human_security_report_en.pdf} 

_{⁶ http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/40207/1/A_European_Way_of_Security%28author%29.pdf} 

_{⁷ https://www.un.org/humansecurity/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/N1147622.pdf}  

_{⁸“New threats to human security in the Anthropocene: Demanding greater solidarity”. https://hs.hdr.undp.org/pdf/srhs2022.pdf} 

2. Human rights

Adopted in 1948 by the UN General Assembly, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) provides the basis for all international human rights treaties developed in recent decades and serves as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and nations in this area (https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-and-mechanisms/international-human-rights-law). The treaties and other instruments adopted since then constitute the backbone of the system developed by the UN to enhance the protection of human rights.

Human rights are commonly understood as fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply by virtue of being human. They are:

• Universal: they are the same for everyone, everywhere, although the how they are promoted, implemented and understood varies between regions and countries. These rights may exist as natural or legal rights in both national and international law.
• Inalienable: no one can renounce or lose them, and states cannot deprive any individual of their human rights.
• Indivisible, interdependent and interrelated: each human right depends on the others, and the violation of one of them affects the exercise of others.
• They must be guaranteed to every individual in every part of the world without discrimination.

As a core part of peace operations, human rights issues are mainstreamed into activities, as well as promoted through specific projects and structures on the ground. 

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and other UN agencies and programs provide expertise, guidance and support to UN peace operations on human rights issues.

The rise of multidimensional peacekeeping in the late 1980s has brought to the establishment of a variety of field missions, in which the civilian component has rapidly grown in size and importance. Human rights monitoring, investigation, reporting, protection and promotion have quickly become a common feature of these operations. This intensification of fieldwork has been hailed as a major development in human rights protection and promotion. Many multidimensional peace operations have their own human rights team tasked with implementing the human rights-related mandate of the given mission and facilitating the mainstreaming of human rights across all mission activities. 

While virtually all operations were initially organised under the auspices of the United Nations (UN), over the years, there has been a proliferation of non-UN-led operations. The European Union (EU) has assumed a prominent role among the regional organisations promoting them.

EU support for human rights, democracy and the rule of law is established in its founding treaties, in which the principles of liberty, democracy, respect for human rights, and the rule of law are identified as fundamental European values. Moreover, the EU’s commitment to human rights in its external relations has been reaffirmed in the Lisbon Treaty, where it is stated that “in its relations with the wider world, the Union shall uphold and promote its values and interests and contribute to the protection of its citizens. It shall contribute to peace, security, the sustainable development of the Earth, solidarity and mutual respect among peoples, free and fair trade, eradication of poverty and the protection of human rights”⁹. Hence, human rights tasks are also a core part of the mandate of the EU. Protection and promotion of human rights are considered a cornerstone of EU foreign policy and EU development cooperation. Adherence to international legal norms concerning human rights, international humanitarian law and the highest standards of behaviour is essential to the EU's credibility and the success of the CSDP missions and operations. 

In 2012, an EU Special Representative (EUSR) for Human Rights was appointed, and the EU’s Strategic Framework and Action Plan on Human Rights and Democracy was adopted. Such an Action plan requires the EU, in particular, to:

• Systematically include human rights, child protection, gender equality – and international humanitarian law where relevant – in the mandates of EU missions and operations and their benchmarks, planning and evaluation (Action 12 [b]).
• Operationalise the EU Comprehensive Approach on implementing UNSC Resolutions 1325 and 1820 on Women, Peace and Security, particularly ensuring women’s equal involvement in all efforts for maintaining peace and security, including post-conflict reconstruction (Action 12 [c]).
• Devise a mechanism for accountability in cases of possible breaches of the Code of Conduct by operation or mission staff (Action 12 [d]). 

The following two Action Plans on Human Rights and Democracy, 2015-2019, adopted in July 2015 (10897/15), and 2020-2024, launched in March 2020 by the Commission and the HRVP within the Strategic Framework, also include specific actions as they relate to CSDP missions and operations. 

To increase compliance with human rights and IHL in security and defence, the EU adopted, on 19 February 2024, a Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Due Diligence Policy on Security Sector Support to third parties (EU HRDDP). The EU HRDDP provides an overarching risk management framework, which spells out core principles and defines concrete actions to manage potential human rights and IHL related risks that may be associated with the EU’s security sector support to third countries provided by Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) instruments, including CSDP missions and operations. 

Even if your mission deployment does not focus specifically on human rights, it is extremely helpful to know which international human rights treaties have been ratified by your host country's government and what level of compliance exists with these treaties (see www.ohchr.org). Information on a host country’s compliance with treaties provides valuable insights on issues such as governance and security and evaluates the performance of national actors that might be your counterparts, such as national security forces and relevant ministries.

Activities that are instrumental in the protection and promotion of human rights include monitoring, fact-finding and reporting, human rights risk management, human rights education and taking measures designed to enhance protection within the legal system. International civilian personnel may work on protecting minority or property rights, combating war crimes, crimes against humanity and human trafficking, or improving the criminal justice and penal system.

International organisations such as the EU have developed mission structures that include human rights advisers to mainstream human rights into the daily operational work of missions on the ground. 

At the EU level, on 13 September 2021, the Civilian Operations Commander Operational Guidelines on Human Rights Mainstreaming and Human Rights Due Diligence were released by EEAS-CPCC to bridge the gap between human rights-related policy and practice as it relates to CSDP missions mandates implementation. The Guidelines contain a toolbox for human rights mainstreaming and a checklist for human rights analysis. The document also enlists instructions on human rights due diligence. It is directed to all CSDP civilian mission management and staff members to foster human rights mainstreaming in the internal and external activities of missions through the adoption of an HRBA. This is because “[m]ission members have a duty not only to guide and assist host authorities in implementing their human rights obligations, but also to carry out their own responsibilities and tasks in a way that ensures these values and principles are respected.” The ultimate goal is to ensure that human rights are integrated consistently and coherently into CSDP missions in line with the EU’s core values.

_{⁹ https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A12007L%2FTXT (Article 2.5)}

3. International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

International humanitarian law (IHL) includes both humanitarian principles and international treaties to minimise suffering and damage during armed conflicts. IHL has been developed through the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the two Additional Protocols of 1977 relating to the protection of victims of armed conflicts. They represent the world’s efforts to protect people in times of armed conflict and are based on the principles of humanity, impartiality and neutrality. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) serves as the guardian of IHL.

The four Geneva Conventions and the First Additional Protocol apply to all cases of international conflicts. These include declared war, armed conflicts, or cases of partial or total occupation where two or more states are involved. In contrast, the common Article 3 and the Second Additional Protocol apply to situations of internal, non-international armed conflict, such as civil wars.

The First Geneva Convention protects soldiers out of battle (hors de combat). This convention ensures the protection and adequate (medical) treatment of wounded or sick people during conflict. The convention encompasses the protection of medical personnel, equipment and facilities as well as the right of ICRC to assist people who are not or are no longer participating in hostilities. It protects civilian support teams and prohibits violence and discrimination based on sex, race, nationality, religion or political beliefs.

The Second Geneva Convention transfers the protection enshrined in the First Geneva Convention to wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea.

The Third Geneva Convention sets out specific rules for the treatment of prisoners of war (POWs) and requires them to be treated humanely. POWs are to be housed adequately and should receive sufficient food, clothing and medical care. The convention also contains guidelines on labour, discipline, recreation and criminal trial.

The Fourth Geneva Convention regulates the protection of civilians in areas of armed conflict and occupied territories. Civilians must be protected from murder, torture, brutality, discrimination, collective punishment or deportation. 

All four Geneva Conventions¹⁰ include an identical Article 3, which lays down the law during conflicts not of an international character. Under this article, those who have put down their weapons or are ‘out of conflict’ must be treated humanely and without any form of discrimination based on race, colour, sex, religion, social status or wealth.

The First Additional Protocol expands the protection of non-combatants such as civilians, military and civilian medical workers in international armed conflict. It forbids the recruitment of children into the armed forces and determines that armed forces need to be recognised as combatants while preparing for or during an attack. It prohibits the misuse of protective emblems and forbids the use of weapons that cause superfluous injury, unnecessary suffering, or widespread, long-term or severe damage to the natural environment.

The Second Additional Protocol, dealing with non-international conflicts, expands the common Article 3 of the four Geneva Conventions and extends the essential rules of the law of armed conflicts to internal wars. It protects victims such as civilians, medical and religious personnel, and shipwrecked and wounded people in internal, high-intensity conflicts.

The updated European Union Guidelines on promoting compliance with international humanitarian law (2009) set out operational tools for the EU and its institutions and bodies to promote compliance with international humanitarian law by third states and, as appropriate, non-state actors operating in third states. The document lists actions for the reporting, assessment, and recommendations for actions for responsible EU bodies whenever international humanitarian law may be applicable.

_{¹⁰ https://www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/geneva-conventions}

4. Protection of Civilians (PoC)

In conflict situations and fragile states, civilians are often victims of targeted violence, including killing, sexual abuse, looting or forced recruitment as (child) soldiers. Governments of affected states are not always willing or able to meet their responsibilities towards the population. Institutions such as the police force, the judiciary or a human rights commission may lack the capacity and means to provide fundamental protection due to a protracted conflict situation. In addition, in some cases, there is little political will to provide protection or build up such institutions, especially in areas with illegal economic activities. In such situations and according to the principle of protecting human rights, the international community is called upon to play an active role.

Protecting civilians in armed conflicts is a cross-sectoral task in peace operations, where civilian, police and military mission components should support the host government in providing adequate protection to its population. However, on several occasions, international intervention was too little or too late, of which the mass killings in Rwanda and Srebrenica in the 1990s are the sad evidence.

The tragic events of the early 1990s sparked a new debate in the UN Security Council on how to prevent such atrocities by protecting populations from violence. In 1999, the UN Secretary-General was charged with developing recommendations for protecting civilians. In the same year, the Security Council explicitly allowed the use of force for protecting threatened civilians in missions such as UNAMSIL in Sierra Leone and INTERFET in East Timor. The mission in Sierra Leone was the first one to include ‘protection of civilians’ explicitly in its mandate.

Since then, the Security Council has passed various resolutions on the protection of civilians in addition to reports by the Secretary-General and other resolutions on protection themes such as gender and child protection¹¹. Nowadays, protecting the civilian population is one of the priorities in almost all UN-mandated peace operations and is considered a prerequisite for socio-political reconstruction and durable peace in troubled or fragile states. In practice, direct implementation activities, training and institution building are complemented by political engagement and are closely coordinated with humanitarian and development actors. The UN has adopted a three-tiered approach for PoC:

• Tier 1 – protecting through engagement and dialogue.
• Tier 2 – protecting from physical violence.
• Tier 3 – establishing a protective environment.

From this, it is evident that for UN peace operations, the ‘protection of civilians’ concept is more than only physical protection or security. The concept includes the creation of political traction to accept the responsibility to protect the population, as well as build roads towards sustainable peace.

Despite this broad, inclusive approach, implementing mandates for protecting civilians is challenging. On the one hand, it is a solid concept with firm roots in international law and enjoying wide political support. Peace operations, which feature military and police components, as well as multi-sectoral technical expertise in the civilian realm, are well suited to deal with protection issues – especially those related to physical threats. However, on the other hand, true progress in the protection of civilians is dependent on political commitment by troop and police contributing countries (PCCs), by Security Council members and, most of all, by the host government, which is the ultimate party responsible for protecting its population.

Protecting civilians requires capabilities in prevention, reaction, defence and deterrence, as well as sufficient and qualified civilian, military and police personnel. Any conflict prevention portfolio should include political and diplomatic measures by the UN and Member States, such as conflict resolution, analysis and early warning. At the same time, the UN must warn against excessive and unrealistic expectations: protecting every individual is impossible, and the presence of an international peace operation alone creates expectations among civilians.

One recurrent problem is the coordination between peace operations and humanitarian actors who also commit to protecting civilians. Humanitarian actors often have a slightly different interpretation of the concept of protection. Since they do not have an armed component, they focus less on physical safety and take an approach geared more towards human rights. While UN missions aim largely at reducing threats, the humanitarian approach is to reduce vulnerabilities. These are complementary approaches; however, in practice, coordination on the ground could often be improved.

To meet current challenges regarding the protection of civilians, a variety of innovative tools and strategies, such as community alert networks, community liaison assistants and joint protection teams, have been developed alongside new tools to monitor the implementation of protection activities and changes in the protection situation over a longer period of time. In addition, mechanisms have been put in place to improve the coordination between civilian, police and military actors and to include the expertise of humanitarian actors and the local population in preventing and reacting effectively to atrocities against civilians.

The EU has aligned itself with the UN’s operational concept of protecting civilians through various policy documents and drafts from its experience and lessons learned. Although EU civilian crisis management missions’ mandates do not ordinarily include specific PoC provisions, they often perform tasks that fall within the broader framework of protecting civilians.

¹¹_{https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un_documents_type/security-council-resolutions/?ctype=Protection%20of%20Civilians&cbtype=protection-of-civilians}

5. Children and Armed Conflict (CAAC) and child protection

Children are among those most vulnerable to conflict. Conflict affects children in multiple ways: boys and girls get injured and even killed, they are recruited by armed forces or groups, and they are separated from their families or forcibly displaced. Much of this happens with impunity. In places where political, social and economic instability leads to conflict, those institutions and services which provide for children, such as schools and hospitals, are weakened or disrupted. Violence against children may occur in everyday contexts, such as at home, in school, in care and justice systems, within communities and at workplaces. Meanwhile, crises such as natural disasters, armed conflict and forced displacement can expose children to exponential risks.

Six grave violations against children during the armed conflict have been identified:

• Recruitment and use of children;
• Killing or maiming of children;
• Sexual violence against children;
• Attacks against schools or hospitals;
• Abduction of children;
• Denial of humanitarian access.

The international community recognises the reduction of the impact of armed conflict on children as an important aspect of any comprehensive strategy to resolve conflict and calls on all parties to the conflict to afford special protection to boys and girls.

During conflicts, children are legally protected by international humanitarian law and human rights law. In the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) and the Additional Protocols of 1977¹², more than twenty provisions have been developed to give special protection to children affected by armed conflict.

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN-CRCDG) is a legally binding international human rights convention that postulates that children everywhere have the right to develop to their fullest potential, the right to protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation, and the right to participate fully in family, cultural and social life. It protects these rights by setting standards in health care, education, and legal, civil and social services.

The monitoring and reporting mechanism (MRM) set up by the UN feeds into this framework to gather evidence of grave violations against children and report them to the UN Security Council. The European Union has guidelines on children and armed conflict (CAAC), updated in 2024, according to which the EU will give special attention to the protection, welfare and rights of children in armed conflict when taking action aimed at maintaining peace and security. The EU has also developed a checklist (updated in 2024) for integrating the protection of children affected by armed conflict into crisis management operations. The checklist seeks to ensure that child protection concerns are systematically addressed from the early planning through the implementation of missions and operations.

While working on a crisis management mission, you might come across violations of children’s rights or child abuse. Examples include the six grave violations, but also any form of violence, the employment of children as household or office cleaners, child prostitution, early marriage and any kind of exploitation of children. Child soldiers are particularly vulnerable in the context of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration and require the attention of specialised mission staff.

If you come across violations of children’s rights, you should refer to the mission’s code of conduct for guidance and immediately report your observations to competent staff within your mission. Child protection is a shared responsibility of all mission personnel, and each mission component has a role to play in it.

_{¹² https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/api-1977 and https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/apii-1977}

6. Preventing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA)

In 2015, allegations against peacekeepers in the UN’s peace operation in the Central African Republic raised a sensation. The AU, EU and UN repeated their zero-tolerance policies towards sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) and reviewed their codes of conduct. The incident brought back memories of the 2002 ‘Sex for Food’ scandal in which UN peacekeeping personnel and NGO workers traded food and money in return for sexual services with women and children in refugee camps in West Africa. 

Since then, the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) adopted a Statement of Commitment on Eliminating Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (2006), outlining six core principles. In 2017, the UN Secretary-General announced a four-pronged strategy to prevent and respond to SEA across the UN system, appointing a Special Coordinator to lead that response, and in 2018, the Council of the European Union published Upgraded Generic Standards of Behaviour for CSDP Missions and Operations that include a section on SEA. The EU has developed a training package for civilian CSDP missions on SEA, which it has started to roll out to mission personnel in 2023.

Both the UN and EU have adopted the following definitions:

Sexual exploitation refers to “any actual or attempted abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential power or trust for sexual purposes, including but not limited to profiting monetarily, socially or politically from the sexual exploitation of another” (European Union, 2018, pp. 9).

Sexual abuse refers to “the actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions” (European Union, 2018, pp. 9).

Most international and regional organisations have standards of behaviour or codes of conduct that condemn sexual exploitation and abuse as serious misconduct. Some missions have mission-specific codes or restrictions, which all categories of personnel have to respect. UN and EU staff members are strictly prohibited from:

• Any sexual activity with anyone under the age of 18 years, even if they have been misleading about their age;
• Any sex with prostitutes, whether or not prostitution is legal in their home country or the host country.

Some codes of conduct also prohibit using children or adults to procure sex for others and having sex with anyone in exchange for food, money, employment, gifts or services.

Perpetrators of sexual exploitation or abuse will risk ending their professional careers, quite apart from risking their personal safety and that of their victims. The UN can fine civilian perpetrators or – in the event of abuse by uniformed personnel – withhold payment to troop- and police-contributing countries. Once the UN waives the immunity of a civilian, they might face criminal proceedings.

Anyone who hears about sexual exploitation and abuse committed by mission personnel – whether suspicions, concerns, rumours or complaints – must report it to the head of mission or through specific conduct or discipline channels. Staff members who report possible breaches should be able to report anonymously and enjoy protection against retaliation.

7. Gender equality and Women, Peace and Security (WPS)

The EU policy framework for implementing the Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda in the context of the EU Common Security and Defence Policy¹³ has continuously developed and is now a comprehensive set of guidelines and commitments from the EU and its member states. It recognises the need to integrate a gender perspective and promote women’s equal participation and protection in crisis management. The policy framework on WPS and gender equality is broad in scope, and its implementation requires active efforts in crisis management missions.

Both the EU and the UN have appointed gender advisers, gender units and gender focal points to provide expertise and guidance on gender issues within the peacekeeping missions and operations. Furthermore, these issues are tackled through implementing specific projects or tasks on the ground. The purpose of these structures is to help mission staff work on all issues from a gender perspective to promote gender equality through immediate and long-term action, empowering the wider population and enabling institutions to meet their gender equality obligations.

What is gender?
According to UN Women, “Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities, and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialisation processes. They are context/time-specific and changeable. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a woman or a man in a given context. In most societies, there are differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making opportunities. Gender is part of the broader socio-cultural context. Other important criteria for socio-cultural analysis include class, race, poverty level, ethnic group and age.”

This division leads to differences in status and the ability to access valuable resources, influence important decisions and seek protection. Women, men, boys, girls, transgender persons and others have different perspectives, needs and interests. A gender perspective implies that we understand these differences in relation to each other and how they affect our work.

What is gender equality?
Gender equality refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of each member of society. It is a human rights issue and a precondition for an indicator of sustainable, people-centred development.

Achieving gender equality does not happen overnight and cannot be imposed from outside. It involves the transformation of values and cultural practices. This process requires time and the inclusion of society as a whole.

What is a gender-sensitive conflict analysis?
Before engaging in crisis management activities, experts should conduct a comprehensive analysis of local and international actors, root causes of the conflict, conflict dynamics, the socio-cultural, economic and political context, as well as opportunities for peace. A gender-sensitive conflict analysis ensures that one understands power relationships and social inequalities between the stakeholders. Based on a sound analysis, crisis management measures can be designed to fit the needs of the host population to be more effective and sustainable. It also helps to ensure the “Do No Harm” approach.

What is gender mainstreaming?
Gender mainstreaming is the strategy to integrate a gender perspective at all stages of a project (planning, implementation, evaluation and follow-up) and all levels of an organisation, mission or operation – everyone is responsible. The immediate purpose is to ensure that men, women, boys, girls, transgender persons and others will benefit equally from policies and actions, as well as to prevent external actors from exacerbating and perpetuating gender discrimination and inequalities. In the long term, the purpose is to promote gender equality. It is important to note that gender mainstreaming does not focus solely on women, although women are usually the targets and beneficiaries of mainstreaming practices due to their often disadvantaged position in many societies going through social change and conflict.

International gender-specific legal frameworks
The following is a list of the most important international and regional peacebuilding frameworks and legal instruments which focus on or include gender-specific provisions.

The Geneva Convention on the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War is commonly referred to as the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) and the Additional Protocols (1977). These legal instruments stress the need for the special protection of women in warfare, including protection against rape and forced prostitution.

The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) is the treaty that established the International Criminal Court (ICC). It is the first document to declare rape and other forms of gender-based violence to be war crimes. If these acts are part of systematic and widespread attacks on civilians, they constitute ‘crimes against humanity’. Rape is condemned as a serious breach of international humanitarian law.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1979) is often considered a ‘women’s charter of human rights’. CEDAW holds states responsible for adopting legislation and political measures to protect women and their rights and to fight discrimination. General recommendation No. 30 on women in prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations gives guidance on concrete measures to ensure women’s human rights are protected before, during and after conflict.

In addition, there are regional legal frameworks, such as the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women (known as the Convention of Belém do Pará of 1994) and the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (known as the Maputo Protocol of 2003), which stipulates under Article 10 the Right to Peace and under Article 11 the Protection of Women in Armed Conflicts. 

UN Security Council Resolutions (UNSCR)

UNSCR 1325 ‘Women, Peace and Security’ (2000) was the first UN Security Council Resolution to link women’s experiences of conflict to the maintenance of international peace and security. It addresses the impact of war on women and their contribution to conflict resolution and sustainable peace. It also calls for gender mainstreaming of all peace operations and peacebuilding programmes.

UNSCRs resolutions¹⁴ 1820 (2008), 1888 (2009), 1960 (2010), 2106 (2013) and 2467 (2019) address conflict-related sexual violence (SRSV) and highlight the need to address and end SRSV, calling for the protection of survivors as well as an end to impunity for SRSV crimes. UNSCR 1820 explicitly recognises SRSV as a tactic of war and a matter of international peace and security and categorically prohibits the granting of amnesty for such crimes. It also stresses equal participation in conflict prevention and resolution efforts and links the prevention of sexual violence with women’s participation in peace processes and leadership positions. UNSCRs 1888, 1960 and 2106 reinforce UNSCR 1820 through a call for leadership on the issue in the form of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict and Women’s Protection Advisers to UN peace operations. The role of these leaders is to build expertise in judicial response, strengthen service provision for survivors, and establish monitoring and reporting mechanisms, including an accountability architecture for listing and delisting perpetrators of SRSV crimes.

UNSCR 1889 (2009) calls for concrete steps to improve the implementation of UNSCR 1325 and to increase women’s participation in post-conflict processes. These steps include calls for a set of global indicators and proposals for monitoring mechanisms for implementing UNSCR 1325.

UNSCR 2122 (2013) seeks to fill gaps in existing Women, Peace and Security (WPS) frameworks. It aims to lay out a systematic approach ensuring full participation and leadership of women and civil society organisations in conflict resolution, and it addresses obstacles in women’s access to justice both during conflict and in post-conflict situations.

UNSCR 2242 (2015) focuses on women’s involvement in efforts to prevent and resolve conflict. It establishes the Informal Expert Group (IEG) and calls for gender-sensitive strategies to counter and prevent violent extremism and sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA).

UNSCR 2272 (2016) on sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) came up as a response to allegations made against peacekeepers in a UN peace operation in the Central African Republic. This resolution outlines SEA as a serious problem at the UN and seeks to remove SEA from a broader institutional culture. 

UNSCR 2331 (2016) was the first resolution on human trafficking, which condemned the phenomenon and stressed how human trafficking can exacerbate conflict and foster insecurity.

UNSCR 2493 (2019) strengthens the existing normative framework of WPS by, e.g. requesting the UN to develop context-specific approaches for women's participation in all UN-supported peace processes and member states to facilitate the full, equal, and meaningful participation of women in all stages of peace processes. 

Equality between women and men is also at the core of the foundational values of the EU. In 2018, the Council of the EU adopted Conclusions on Women, Peace and Security and a new EU Strategic Approach on Women, Peace and Security. This approach emphasises the need for systematic integration of a gender perspective into not only all fields and activities in the domain of peace and security but also EU external actions as a whole. 

Gender perspectives in crisis management missions

_{¹³ https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/implementing-women-peace-and-security-agenda_en} 

_{¹⁴ UN Women. Global norms and standards: peace and security. Available at https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/peace-and-security/global-norms-and-standards#_WPS_resolutions} 

8. Refugees, IDPs, migrants and stateless people

In 2022, 108 million people worldwide were forcibly displaced – the highest level on record, according to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)¹⁵. This included 62.5 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), 35.3 million refugees and 5.4 million asylum-seekers. More than 40% of the world’s refugees are under the age of 18. 4.3 million people are reported to be stateless, but the true global figure is estimated to be significantly higher.

Looking at the refugee caseload, more than half of refugees come from just three countries (same source): Syria (6.5 million), Ukraine (5.7 million), and Afghanistan (5.7 million). The top five refugee-hosting countries are Turkey (3.6 million), Iran (3.4 million), Colombia (2.5 million), Germany (2.1 million), and Pakistan (1.7 million). Globally, 76% of displaced people are in low and middle-income countries. 70% of refugees and other people in need of international protection live in countries neighbouring their countries of origin. Enormous challenges face those entities seeking to protect and assist people who have been forced to flee their homes. Legal safeguards have been challenged in recent years, especially at Europe’s borders. Huge mixed movements of migrants and refugees make processing asylum applications extremely difficult. The majority of forced migrants live in poorer countries, putting great strain on host communities. Financing the needs of displaced people and safeguarding their rights are growing problems.

Definitions as per the International Organization for Migration (IOM)¹⁶:

Asylum seeker: A person who seeks safety from persecution or serious harm in a country other than their own and awaits a decision on the application for refugee status.

Forced migration: Migration in which an element of coercion exists, including threats to life and livelihood, whether arising from natural or man-made causes. Forced migrants may be refugees or IDPs.

Internally Displaced Person (IDP): Persons who have been forced to flee their homes to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalised violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognised state border.

Refugee: A person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country. This definition, from the 1951 Refugee Convention, was expanded by the 1969 Organization of African Unity (OAU) Convention. It defines a refugee as anyone compelled to leave their country owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order. The 1984 Cartagena Declaration added that refugees flee their country because their lives, security or freedom have been threatened by generalised violence, foreign aggression, internal conflicts, massive violations of human rights or other circumstances which have seriously disturbed public order.

Stateless person: A person who is not considered a national by any state under the operation of its law. As such, a stateless person lacks those rights attributable to national and diplomatic protection states, no inherent right of sojourn in the State of residence and no right of return if they travel. Stateless people, therefore, receive no legal protection or automatic rights to health care, education or employment.

Legal and institutional frameworks

UNHCR is legally mandated under the 1951 Refugee Convention to coordinate international action to protect and assist refugees. UNHCR also has a mandate to help stateless people and is authorised to take part in specific IDP operations (e.g. in Sudan, Angola, Colombia and Bosnia & Herzegovina). The UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) has a specific mandate to provide assistance and protection to the 5.4m 1948 Palestine refugees and 1967 displaced persons and their descendants in Gaza, the West Bank, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria.

The protection of IDPs remains the responsibility of their respective governments, which are often unwilling or unable to provide the services and access to rights that their citizens require.

IOM works to promote international cooperation and practical solutions to migration problems and to provide humanitarian assistance to migrants in need, including refugees and IDPs. Meanwhile, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has long addressed the needs of IDPs and their host communities.

Several legal frameworks, principles and declarations guide the international response to forced migration:

Through the Refugee Convention (1951) and its 1967 Protocol, as well as the 1969 OAU Convention and the 1984 Cartagena Declaration, refugees receive specific protection under international law.

Grounded in Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), which recognises the right to seek asylum from persecution in another country, the Refugee Convention stipulates that refugees should not be penalised for their illegal entry or stay. It contains the principle of ‘non-refoulement’, which provides that no one shall expel or return (‘refouler’) a refugee against their will to a territory where they fear threats to life or freedom. The Convention lays down minimum standards for the treatment of refugees, including access to courts, primary education and work, plus a refugee travel document. The Convention does not apply to those who have committed serious crimes or acts contrary to the principles of the UN.

The UN Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (1954) is an international law that provides minimum standards of treatment for stateless persons, granting them the same rights as citizens to freedom of religion and education and the same rights as non-nationals to association, employment and housing. 

The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (1998) were presented to the UN Commission on Human Rights in 1998. The 30 guiding principles are consistent with international human rights law, refugee law and international humanitarian law and apply these existing norms to the situation of displaced persons. Although not legally binding, the UN General Assembly has recognised the principles as an important international framework for IDP protection and encouraged all relevant actors to use them. Regional organisations and states have also deemed the principles useful, and some have incorporated them into laws and policies.

The Refugee and Migration Compacts (2018) were adopted in 2018 after the UN General Assembly adopted the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants in September 2016 in response to the growing movements of refugees and other migrants. This declaration called for the development of two global compacts:

• The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration is the first UN agreement on a common approach to international migration in all dimensions. The global compact is non-legally binding. It is grounded in values of state sovereignty, responsibility sharing, non-discrimination and human rights, and recognises that a cooperative approach is needed to optimise the benefits of migration while addressing its risks and challenges for individuals and communities in countries of origin, transit and destination.
• The Global Compact on Refugees has four objectives: to ease pressures on host countries, enhance refugee self-reliance, expand access to third-country solutions, and support conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity. The compact includes a Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) and a Programme of Action.

Challenges

Mixed movements 

As migrants and refugees often follow similar routes to a better life, it is important to distinguish the different categories of persons in these mixed movements and apply the appropriate framework of rights, responsibilities and protection. In reality, however, it is very difficult to do this at an international border, as either the right to claim asylum is denied by local authorities (which label all arriving migrants as ‘illegal’) or all new arrivals are claiming asylum, as there is no other option to enter the country.

Supporting host communities

The great majority of the world’s refugees and IDPs are hosted by developing countries. Host countries often cannot afford to meet their needs and exclude them from national poverty surveys or development frameworks. Contrary to popular belief, only 10 per cent of displaced persons stay in organised camps. The rest find informal homes or hosts with whom they can seek a living and a future anonymously. But they risk living in slums without legal documents and are vulnerable to exploitation, arrest and detention. Their hosts bear the brunt of surging migrant arrivals, and without support, local services are easily overstretched. Short-term humanitarian financing is ill-suited to addressing protracted refugee crises and the longer-term livelihood needs of refugees and their host communities. Greater global responsibility-sharing and more tailored, diverse financing instruments are required.

 _{¹⁵ UNHCR. Global Trends. Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/global-trends} 

 _{¹⁶ International Organization for Migration. Key Migration Terms. Available at https://www.iom.int/key-migration-terms}

9. Environment, climate security and environmental peacebuilding

Over the last 60 years, at least 40 per cent of all internal conflicts have been linked to the exploitation of natural resources, including timber, diamonds, gold, oil, fertile land and water, according to the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). Conflicts involving natural resources are twice as likely to relapse.

Healthy ecosystems and sustainably managed resources are vital in reducing the risk of armed conflict and supporting livelihoods that are the basis of durable peace. At least six UN peacekeeping missions have been mandated to support the host country’s ability to re-establish control over its resource base and stop illicit extraction by armed groups. But more needs to be done to ensure the ‘resource curse’ does not undermine the security of fragile and conflict-affected states. 

Non-renewable resources, such as oil and diamonds, are not the only drivers. Competition for diminishing renewable resources, such as land and water, is growing. As the effects of climate change and rising populations accelerate, especially in marginal economies, environmental degradation is becoming both a cause and a consequence of conflict.

Climate change is a risk multiplier, especially in fragile contexts, and accelerates existing political, ethnic, religious and socio-economic conflicts. In particular, dwindling resources, extreme weather events or fluctuating food prices endanger livelihoods and affect the stability of political systems and societies. Many crisis management missions and peace operations are deployed in areas severely affected by climate change. The UN has recognised the degrading effect of climate change on security and stability in some missions and incorporated this in mission mandates. In 2022, the Department of Peace Operations (DPO) joined the Climate Security Mechanism (CSM), which supports the entire UN system in addressing climate-related security risks.

The EU has started integrating climate factors into its Common Security and Defence Policy and intends to establish a network of environmental and climate advisors in its missions, as stated in the EU’s climate change and defence roadmap. Civilian crisis management missions have a set of operational guidelines in place for integrating environmental and climate aspects into missions – Operational guidelines for integrating environmental and climate aspects into civilian Common Security and Defence Policy missions. The operational guidelines acknowledge the need to address environmental and climate issues in the internal and external mission activities. The internal dimension includes optimisation of resource and energy use, environmental footprint reporting, duty of care and in-mission awareness-raising. In contrast, the external dimension includes analysis and situational awareness of environment-related security risks in the host country. 

The EU has decided that by 2025, all crisis management missions will report on their environmental footprint. In 2022, some civilian missions piloted the environmental footprint reporting according to a joint reporting framework. The reports’ findings help missions create plans to enhance environmental performance. Operating in high-risk environments and leased compounds creates obstacles in moving towards more sustainable practices. Even so, there are measures to reduce environmental impacts on the mission level without impairing operational capacity or mandate delivery.

In 2008, the EU and the UN created a partnership to build the capacity of national partners and the UN and EU systems to prevent natural resources from contributing to violent conflict—more information. The partnership aims to improve policy development and programme coordination between deciding actors at the field level. Along with the EU, at least eight UN agencies have actively participated, including UNDP, UNEP and UN-Habitat.

The partnership has published an inventory of capacities for natural resource management (NRM) within the UN, including the Toolkit and Guidance for Preventing and Managing Land and Natural Resources Conflict, centred around five themes:

• Land and Conflict;
• Extractive Industries and Conflict;
• Renewable Resources and Conflict;
• Capacity-building for NRM;
• Conflict Prevention in Resource-Rich Economies.

Environmental peacebuilding approaches can contribute to peace at different stages of the conflict lifecycle: during conflict prevention, military operations and post-conflict recovery. Over the past decade, all major peace agreements have included provisions on natural resources. During post-conflict recovery, it is essential to maximise sustainable livelihoods from natural resources, especially for returning displaced persons and ex-combatants who are being reintegrated. Shared natural resources can be an entry point for trust building between divided groups.  

Peace operations can be more effective by working to restore national and local governance of natural resources and by securing resource-rich sites that may otherwise finance conflict or provide an incentive to spoil peacebuilding efforts. For example, the 2018 mandate of the UN Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI) required the mission to help the Iraq government build regional cooperation around issues of ‘energy, environment, water, and refugees’.

10. Do No Harm

‘Do No Harm’ is a context-sensitive principle for planning, evaluating, and adapting assistance measures in crisis management. It is based on the understanding that any international involvement has unavoidable side effects. With this guiding principle, crisis management should be shaped in a way sensitive to the context in which it operates so that its negative effects can be minimised. Conflict analysis is thus a necessary tool in any activity where an external actor is planning to engage in fragile or conflict situations or any contexts which have structural vulnerabilities.

The Do No Harm approach was developed at the beginning of the 1990s by non-governmental organisations (NGOs). Though created for emergency aid, it has since been applied in all areas and phases of crisis management. One of the core assumptions of Do No Harm is that in every conflict, there are forces and structures present that promote or maintain violence, as well as forces and structures that promote peace. Crisis management should strengthen those structures (e.g. dispute resolution procedures) and actors (e.g. moderate leaders) that can work positively towards a peaceful transformation of conflict.

International actors can cause damage by failing to act; equally, they can cause damage by articulating or promoting their interests and priorities too vigorously. Such interventions can be perceived as biased or inappropriate. Depending on who is helped first, who receives benefits and which signals international actors send out, external aid can actually worsen conflicts and emergencies, even if unintentionally.

After the end of the civil war in Guatemala in the late 1990s, returning refugees received international support in the form of land, houses and educational programmes. However, those who had remained in the country received no comparable benefits and felt neglected. This resulted in local conflicts as well as disputes among aid organisations. In Afghanistan, international efforts to empower women and promote their engagement in the political sphere increased tensions within some families and villages.

International crisis management is continually confronted with dilemmas. Achieving a wholly positive outcome is often not possible. From the start, the Do No Harm approach must be applied to the very analysis that provides the basis for an informed understanding of a conflict. During the implementation phase, it is necessary to continue examining interventions against the Do No Harm principle to identify pitfalls and address them, which includes continually analysing the context and conflict dynamics, making conscious choices about cooperation partners, and understanding which actors international missions and operations help to empower. Dialogue and communication can help mitigate unintended consequences and avert misunderstandings. By embracing the Do No Harm principle in all stages of their work, states, international organisations, and NGOs have a chance to balance out imperatives of action while mitigating possible unintended and long-term consequences of their actions.

11. Local ownership

Local ownership designates the process as well as the objective of the gradual takeover of responsibility by local actors. As a prerequisite for the sustainability of peace consolidation, it is a key ingredient in the exit strategy of a peace operation or civilian crisis management mission. Local ownership is both a result-oriented principle and a normative concept that foresees the involvement of local actors as early as possible.

For decades, local ownership has been an ingredient in development cooperation. This involves concepts such as ‘helping people help themselves’ or ‘participatory development’. With an increasing number of peace-consolidation tasks, local ownership has become even more important since the 1990s. The concept has become a key element of reports, position papers and guidelines for a wide variety of actors in crisis management missions. However, there is neither a coherent theory of local ownership nor a common view of what the implementation of the principle entails in practice. 

There are challenges related to how “local” is defined and actualised. The established system does not always reflect the interests of the local population. At times, the local population will not agree with the state authorities. Marginalised groups are not necessarily able to make their voices heard. Local ownership may keep the traditional dominance structures in place and be in contrast to the norms (such as good governance and human rights) the peace operation or crisis management mission was set up to establish in the first place. On the other hand, the lack of local ownership may risk establishing or strengthening unsuitable or unsustainable institutions. 

Often, local ownership constitutes the attempt to adjust already defined international politics to local realities. Interaction between local and international actors is, as a rule, asymmetric. International actors dominate processes, thus often impeding local ownership. In practice, however, methods and instruments of cooperation between local and international actors are applied that support local participation, acceptance and, eventually, ownership. In this regard, the co-location of international and local personnel can contribute to good cooperation and joint learning. Although well received, programmes for the recruitment and further education of national employees (national professional officers) entail the possibility that qualified national experts may migrate to international organisations (‘brain drain’).

12. Good governance and anti-corruption

While there is no universal definition of good governance, the concept generally implies a process whereby public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources free of corruption and abuse and with due regard for the rule of law. In 2015, the international community agreed upon the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The 2030 Agenda provides a strong international framework to promote good governance. Goal 16 focuses on peace, justice and strong institutions. Its eleven targets aim, among others, to promote the rule of law and equal access to justice; promote effective, accountable and transparent institutions; and ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making.

According to the European Commission’s “Handbook of Good Practices in the Fight Against Corruption” (2023), corruption implies the misuse of power for private gain. Corruption has been a significant issue in nearly every major crisis and intervention by the international community in the last 20 years. Conflicts and revolutions may be prompted by corruption and the excesses of a regime; equally, conflict may be perpetuated when corruption is deeply entrenched. Warring parties often benefit from the spoils of continued fighting. Fragile and conflict-affected states, as well as countries emerging from conflict, are often characterised by endemic corruption, low levels of state legitimacy and capacity, weak rule of law, wavering levels of political will and high levels of insecurity. In this sense, addressing corruption ties closely into wider good governance efforts.

Corruption is a complex issue that often manifests itself in subtle ways, especially in a context where governmental institutions are weak and their capacities to absorb higher amounts of foreign aid are low. The effects can be seen in bribery, the corrupt management of state assets and through technical issues, such as biased contracting and illicit money flow. However, corruption should not only be understood in terms of bribery or misbehaviour for personal enrichment; it often underlies complex power relationships and deeply entrenched patronage systems. 

Corruption has many consequences; it can:

• Perpetuate conflict and instability;
• Waste significant amounts of international funds;
• Damage the effectiveness and credibility of a mission;
• Foster a culture of impunity rather than lawfulness.

Therefore, a successful fight against corruption can often improve the security and well-being of the civilian population. While a determined effort to address corruption may increase the complexity of the early stages of a mission, it will pay back high dividends in terms of institution building, stability and the overall success of the mission. A ‘clean’ environment allows better outcomes to be delivered at lower cost to the host nation and the international community.

There is a growing movement away from adopting an orthodox, unitary, state-centric approach towards viewing the rule of law from the perspective of legal pluralism. While UN institutions such as the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) have developed mechanisms for spotting corruption risks and investigating cases of wrongdoing, anti-corruption should be further mainstreamed as a priority within national and international policy arenas. Robust guidance and internal systems are needed to address corruption risks, while specific training could assist crisis managers in tackling corruption within their daily work.

However, corruption, informal justice or mismanagement have to be considered and tackled within their own cultural and situational circumstances. Curbing corruption in a specific context or case you come across may not be effective or may even have unintended consequences. A constant balance between legal pluralism and local circumstances on the one hand and compliance with international norms, human rights and legal standards on the other is extremely complicated but indispensable in practice.

The UN has developed three guiding principles to which international missions should adhere when dealing with informal justice: giving due regard to applicable informal justice systems, maintaining oversight of the application of informal justice norms and practices, and avoiding corrupt informal justice systems. They include the following advice:

• Understand that corruption is both a cause for and a consequence of conflict;
• Take corruption risk into account when conducting assessments and planning programmes and projects;
• Try to gain or maintain an overview of existing informal structures and practices;
• Do not contribute to corrupt practices yourself (e.g. refuse to pay bribes or give personal favours to counterparts);
• Cultivate a culture of personal accountability and ensure transparency in your working environment and programmes (particularly where money flows);
• Build integrity and counter-corruption measures into key programmes;
• Promote or enhance internal and external checks and institutional control mechanisms.

13. Rule of Law (RoL)

Establishing respect for the rule of law (RoL) is fundamental for achieving sustainable peace in the aftermath of conflict. The Rule of Law is the legal and political framework under which all persons and institutions, including the state itself, are accountable. Laws need to be publicly promulgated, equally enforced, independently adjudicated and consistent with international human rights norms and standards. The rule of law requires measures to ensure adherence to the principles of supremacy of the law, equality before the law, accountability to the law, fairness in the application of the law, separation of powers, participation in decision-making, legal certainty, avoidance of arbitrariness and procedural and legal transparency.

Peace operations and crisis management missions often work to strengthen police, justice and correctional entities, as well as the oversight institutions that can hold them accountable. Typical programme activities include: 

• Capacity development for judges, prosecutors, police and prison staff;
• Support in reforming the host country’s criminal and administrative justice systems;
• Assistance to transitional justice and the fight against corruption.

The growing complexity of conflicts has led international organisations to broaden their portfolio of RoL activities, including extending state authority to territories with few or no public services, fighting against organised crime and preventing violent extremism. While the focus of peace operations and civilian crisis management is still on state institutions, there is an increasing trend towards supporting access to justice and engaging civil society.

Since 1999, the UN Security Council has mandated virtually all new peacekeeping operations to assist national actors in strengthening the rule of law. Activities designed to promote RoL have been central to most of the EU’s civilian crisis management missions. While currently only the EU Rule of Law Mission (EULEX) in Kosovo and the EU Police Mission in the Palestinian Territories (EUPOL COPPS) are explicitly labelled as Rule of Law missions, most of the other existing civilian missions activities include rule of law support in combination with security sector reform (SSR) efforts.

Both the UN and the EU have increased their resources and personnel, as well as adapted their structures, to respond to the growing demand for RoL activities within the framework of crisis management missions. To date, RoL missions have typically focused on two distinct roles:

• Strengthening the rule of law (e.g. capacity development, training, monitoring, mentoring and advising to bring the local legal system up to international standards);
• Substitution for the local legal system (i.e. carrying out executive functions) when local structures are either non-existent failing or to consolidate the rule of law in crisis situations and restore public order and security.

Executive mandates, such as that of the EULEX Kosovo, have been and will likely remain in the minority, while strengthening the rule of law in close coordination with security sector reform will be the focus of most mission mandates. The Civilian CSDP Compact of 2018 introduced the approach of modular and scalable mandates, which could feature a blend of executive and non-executive tasks. The 2023 Civilian CSDP Compact also points to a modular and scalable approach.

14. Security Sector Reform (SSR)

Since the late 1990s, security sector reform (SSR) has formed part of the toolbox of international crisis management. SSR is both an operational and a normative concept based on the insight that states and their security apparatuses may become a security threat to the population, particularly when the military commits human rights violations or when people are detained without trial.

The SSR aims to support local authorities in creating an effective, efficient, and democratically controlled security sector. This sector includes military, police and intelligence agencies, ministries, parliament, civil society organisations, judicial and criminal prosecution bodies, non-governmental security companies and paramilitary groups. Typical activities may include support for judicial and police reform, small arms control, mine action, and promoting human rights and gender justice.

SSR encompasses, among other things, establishing civilian offices for supervising security forces, reforming institutional structures and improving operational capabilities. All measures are interdependent, so a sustainable SSR can only be accomplished if activities are effectively coordinated. The cooperation of national and local authorities and stakeholders and their ownership of the process are therefore crucial to the success of SSR.

SSR is carried out in fragile and post-conflict countries both through bilateral programmes and SSR components of international programmes and missions. Many states and international organisations have adopted SSR as an integrated concept and field of action.

The EU has long-standing experience supporting SSR programmes in post-conflict, transitional and developing countries. Key policy documents include Draft Council Conclusions on a Policy Framework for Security Sector Reform (2006), Council Conclusions on Security and Development (2007) and the Joint Communication to the European Parliament and the Council: ‘Elements for an EU-wide strategic framework for supporting security sector reform’ (2016). 

The 2016 framework defines SSR as “the process of transforming a country’s security system so that it gradually provides individuals and the state with more effective and accountable security in a manner consistent with respect for human rights, democracy, the rule of law and principles of good governance”. With the framework, the EU has developed analysis and coordination mechanisms such as country reviews and the Coordination Matrix. 

The EU supports SSR with crisis management missions and operations as well as development cooperation. Most of the civilian and military crisis management missions deployed by the EU work on SSR, either with a direct SSR mandate or elements directly linked to the security sector. The EU also targets justice and security sector reform worldwide through development cooperation instruments. The Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace (IcSP) and its successor NDICI – Global Europe, have become crucial instruments for enabling the EU to operate within the area of security and development in a more timely manner, supporting SSR projects in a wide variety of crises.

The UN supports SSR through various operations, missions and projects managed by several UN agencies and departments. The UN Inter-Agency Security Sector Reform Task Force (IASSRTF) was established in 2007 to promote an integrated, holistic, and coherent UN approach to SSR. In 2012, it released the Security Sector Reform Integrated Technical Guidance Notes. In terms of policy, the UN Secretary-General published reports on security sector reform in 2008 and 2013. On 28 April 2014, the Security Council concluded an open debate on SSR with the unanimous adoption of its first-ever stand-alone resolution on the topic (UNSCR 2151), underlining the growing importance of SSR in the UN context.

In 2005, the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) released guidelines on the implementation of SSR, followed by the publication of the OECD DAC Handbook on Security System Reform: Supporting Security and Justice in 2008.

The African Union (AU) issued the Solemn Declaration on a Common African Defence and Security Policy (CADSP) in 2004, followed by the adoption of its Policy on Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) in 2006, which serves as a guide for developing comprehensive policies and strategies that seek to consolidate peace, promote sustainable development and pave the way for growth and regeneration in countries and regions emerging from conflict. Furthermore, adopting the African Union Policy Framework on Security Sector Reform in 2013 was a major step in targeting the lack of African ownership of SSR approaches.

The Security sector governance and reform (SSG/R) concept is also increasingly recognised as having an essential role in conflict prevention, early warning, crisis management, as well as post-conflict rehabilitation and peacebuilding by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and its participating States. The OSCE published its first Guidelines on SSG/R for OSCE Staff in 2016 and updated them in 2022. The guidelines are meant to provide the organisation with the tools to pursue a coherent and coordinated approach to supporting nationally led SSG/R processes. They aim to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the organisation’s ongoing SSG/R efforts.

The International Security Sector Advisory Team (ISSAT) of the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) is also one of the most important actors in the field of SSR. It provides practical support to the international community in its efforts to improve security and justice, primarily in conflict-affected and fragile states. To do so, it works with a group of Member States and institutions to develop and promote good security and justice reform practices and principles by helping its members build their capacity to support national and regional security and justice reform processes.

15. Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR)

Following the end of an armed conflict, disarming and demobilising ex-combatants and reintegrating them into society are necessary preconditions for ensuring lasting security, preventing a relapse into violence and creating a secure environment for peacebuilding.

DDR is part of an extensive cluster of measures for stabilising a country. Since the 1990s, various peace operations have implemented DDR programmes. While disarmament and demobilisation can be realised relatively quickly, reintegration measures may require a commitment over several years. DDR programmes often face challenges such as weak local ownership, ineffective security and justice sector governance, unrealistic expectations or unsupported provisions in peace agreements, and short-term and fragmentary implementation.

With some exceptions, most DDR programmes have been implemented by UN peace operations. However, through some activities, the EU operations, the World Bank and bilateral programmes have been able to work alongside UN missions on this issue.

DDR is one of the few fields in peace operations in which the utilisation of practical experience has led to a large-scale coordinated learning process. At the end of this came the approval of the Integrated DDR Standards (IDDRS) by the UN’s interagency working group on DDR. Since then, the IDDRS have been the key guideline for DDR programmes worldwide. The EU’s new strategic approach in support of DDR of former combatants from 2021 takes into account the UN IDDRS. The EU's strategic approach also sees a role for crisis management missions, which should contribute to an environment favourable to DDR processes by supporting national and local actors. EU missions may also contribute to the long-term reintegration of former combatants who have undergone a DDR process of training and mentoring activities.

16. Policing tasks in peace operations and civilian crisis management

Police activities in peace operations and civilian crisis management have become increasingly wide-ranging and complex, moving from monitoring host-state police to supporting the reform and restructuring of police services and related institutions. In a few exceptional cases (such as Kosovo and Timor-Leste), ‘executive’ police mandates involved substituting for inadequate or absent police and law enforcement capacity. More commonly, mandates have emphasised the protection of civilians and other protection-related tasks, such as conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV), sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), and child protection – in most cases, combined with requirements to build host-state police capacity. These tasks are complicated by weak governance, fragile and politicised institutions, community dislocation, and a highly complex and insecure operating environment.

United Nations peacekeeping began in 1948 when the Security Council authorised the deployment of UN military observers to the Middle East (UNTSO). The first deployment of police officers in the context of UN peacekeeping dates back to 1960 in the Congo (ONUC) when a unit of 30 police officers from Ghana was tasked to enforce the law and train the Congolese police. The increasing demand for police peacekeepers and their role as a central pillar of UN peace operations was well captured in the 2000 Brahimi report and the 2015 Report of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (the HIPPO report) and again acknowledged through Security Council Resolution 2185, the first stand-alone resolution on the role of policing. 

Police components in UN peace operations are mainly staffed by national police services or other law enforcement personnel of various ranks and experience seconded by Member States. Specifically, a UN Police component may include individual police officers (IPOs), so-called specialised police teams, seconded police and civilian experts, and cohesive, mobile ‘formed police units’ (FPUs). FPUs now form two-thirds of all UN Police personnel in current missions. Their rise reflects the need for robust policing capabilities. FPUs are generally composed of a standing unit of approximately 160 officers from one police-contributing country, and, based on their special equipment and tactical means, they close the capability gap between the military component and the operational portfolio of (usually unarmed) IPOs. FPUs may also include specialised elements such as SWAT (Special Weapons and Tactics) and/or K9 (police dog) teams. The main tasks of police in UN peace operations are the protection of UN missions’ personnel and facilities, the support of local police services in maintaining public order and security, and the protection of civilians.

In sum, the mandated roles and functions of the UN Police are as follows:

• Protection of civilians (PoC), including child protection;
• Preventing and responding to conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV);
• Mentoring, advising, monitoring, training and capacity building;
• Protection of UN personnel and facilities (FPUs);
• Public order management (FPUs);
• Operational support to the host country police (mainly FPUs);
• Protection and promotion of human rights;
• Providing electoral security;
• Interim policing and law enforcement (which is rare).

While the UN is the international organisation deploying most police officers, there are also regional organisations such as the African Union (AU), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the European Union (EU) providing police personnel for law enforcement-related assistance to countries in transition.

Civilian police (CIVPOL) have gained a leading role in improving EU crisis response capabilities. The first sizeable EU police missions were deployed in the Balkans at the end of the 1990s (e.g. EUPM Bosnia and EUPOL PROXIMA in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia). Tasks performed by police officers deployed under the EU include police education and training, monitoring, mentoring, advising, reforming and restructuring of domestic police services. The tasks often demand expertise at the strategic level as tasks may involve mentoring and advising senior law enforcement personnel.

Since 2003, seven EU Member States that already had specialised police forces with military status (known as gendarmerie-type units) have made these capabilities available to the EU by creating a new European Gendarmerie Force (EGF or Eurogendfor). These robust units perform similar tasks to the FPUs deployed under the UN.

17. Monitoring, Mentoring and Advising (MMA)

Monitoring, mentoring and advising have become crucial skills not only in civilian crisis management but also in all kinds of international cooperation activities. Most international civilian experts deployed will be tasked with mentoring either an individual national counterpart or advising a national administrative body. Recently, various terms have been used interchangeably by missions to describe this interaction – monitoring, mentoring, advising, partnering or coaching are just a few examples. While partnering has been used mostly for bilateral military cooperation, such as between ISAF and the Afghan military in Afghanistan, coaching is more often found in business-related activities. In your area of work, you will mostly encounter monitoring, mentoring and advising, often abbreviated to MMA. 

The EU Civilian Operations Commander has developed Operational Guidelines for Monitoring, Mentoring and Advising in Civilian CSDP missions, which seek to concretely explain how to get monitoring, mentoring and advising activities planned and conducted on the ground in EU civilian crisis management missions.

The UN has a Manual on Police Monitoring, Mentoring and Advising in Peace Operations, which provides practical advice on what to monitor in the host-state police, how to turn monitoring results into programmatic activities, as well as how to perform mentoring and advising most effectively.

Roles in MMA are as follows:

Monitors collect information, observe, assess and report on the performance of relevant institutions (e.g. police, military, justice and administration) and their personnel. In addition, compliance with agreements or political processes, such as respect for human rights, peace or ceasefire agreements and elections, can be monitored. An important part of monitoring involves increasing international visibility on the ground and observing the performance, efficiency and work methods of local counterparts. This knowledge can then be used to analyse how to improve performance through mentoring and advising. 

Mentors are experienced professionals who ‘shadow’ host-state representatives, foster and support the personal skills and professional performance of their ‘mentee’ and see them applied. Mentoring takes place in a long-term one-to-one learning relationship that should be based on mutual trust and respect.

Advisers provide expertise on operational issues to host institutions or organisations to find solutions to their problems and improve their performance or strengthen their capacity to fulfil specialised tasks. Advisers usually do not work in a one-to-one relationship with an individual. Advising can concentrate either on a solution to an individual problem (usually short-term) or a long-term relationship with an organisation.

A mindset for being in an advisory role is different from that of being in an executive role. Crisis management experts often perform executive roles in their own countries, whereas in missions, they have to adapt their role to that of a mentor or adviser. Crucial skills and competencies in mentoring and advising are active listening, interpersonal skills, communication skills, the ability to build trust and cooperative relationships, flexibility, adaptability, empathy, the ability to engage with senior officials, and the ability to interact in a multicultural, multi-ethnic environment with sensitivity and respect for diversity. 

How can you be a good mentor?

• Take your job seriously. You have to commit yourself to the personal and professional growth of the person you are mentoring by being easily available, fostering open communication and investing as much time, effort and patience as necessary. You need to create an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect, which can take some time at the beginning of your deployment. Be patient and get to know your mentee.
• Follow up. You need to keep track of your mentee’s progress and be prepared to follow up on and deal with any problems that might arise.
• Facilitate the mentee’s learning. You should allow your mentee to learn and discover by being inquisitive, critical and resourceful. You should by no means transfer all that you know to them but rather facilitate the acquisition of that knowledge. Be flexible in adapting your goals to their needs and provide the space for the mentee to resolve their problems first before jointly working out additional solutions.
• Be ready to learn from your mentee. Mentoring is never a one-way relationship. If you work together with your mentee and value their experience and skills, they will also take your experience and skills seriously. You should learn and benefit from the mentoring experience, as well as reflect on your own practice and come up with a method that works for both of you.

18. Mediation, negotiation and dialogue

Mediation, negotiation and dialogue facilitation are used to prevent, mitigate and resolve conflicts. While negotiation and mediation as conflict management tools have traditionally belonged to the realm of states, the decline of inter-state conflicts since the end of the Cold War and the subsequent increase of civil wars and intra-state conflicts have opened niches for the intervention of independent and non-state third-party diplomacy actors. Actors involved in mediation now range from the United Nations, regional organisations and governments to private organisations and prominent peacemakers. While state actors, the UN and regional organisations constitute so-called traditional power-based mediators that benefit from their inherent leverage, independent private actors often enjoy greater flexibility. They can react quickly to unfolding situations and deal with parties beyond the reach of official actors.

The emergence of specialised mediation actors, such as mediation-support capacities in the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the African Union (AU), as well as the establishment of professional networks, such as the Mediation Support Network (MSN), have contributed to the further professionalisation and institutionalisation of the mediation field.

Mediation, whether by states or private actors, is often described as taking place on three levels or ‘tracks’:

• Track 1: dialogue between official representatives of conflict parties and dialogue in which official representatives or those close to the leadership of conflict parties participate jointly with non-governmental actors through the facilitation of private mediators;
• Track 2: dialogue among unofficial actors, often including civil society representatives, religious leaders, business leaders and academics;
• Track 3: dialogue at the community level.
  On the ground, several dialogue tracks might take place in parallel or sequence, as successful mediation often requires not only cooperation with peacebuilding organisations but also engagement with a range of actors.

Most peace processes involve not only multiple mediation actors but also a variety of different tasks and strategies, from process design to technical assistance. Besides facilitating talks between parties, mediation actors can also advise the conflict parties on negotiation processes or technical issues and support other local or international mediation initiatives. Furthermore, mediators increasingly consider the relevance of human rights and justice issues for sustainable peace, thereby often promoting the inclusion of women, youth and civil society in peace processes.

A majority of crisis management missions and peace operations operate in contexts with an ongoing or recently ended violent conflict. Thus, the mission's mandate might directly or indirectly relate to the implementation of the peace agreement or the monitoring of the implementation. Some missions have positions that require specific expertise in mediation and dialogue facilitation or at least in recognising circumstances that require additional and more specialised mediation, negotiation and dialogue expertise. Several everyday activities in missions require negotiation and facilitation skills, for example, mentoring and advising tasks, facilitating discussions between local stakeholders, dealing with freedom of movement, human rights and gender issues, and interacting on an ongoing basis with stakeholders to enhance communication and build trust.

19. Digital communication

With the advent of information and communication technologies (ICT), digital communications are crucial in modern crisis management missions and peace operations. They provide vital channels for mission coordination, information dissemination, and strategic communication. Moreover, they are the means of our everyday communication. Be it with our families, friends or peers. We use digital media to present our digital selves to our broader analogue network of colleagues and friends and share topics that interest us. However, even though ICTs are bringing the world closer to us and despite having many advantages, adversaries are utilising these digital communication platforms for malicious intent. This section explores the role and challenges of digital communications as well as provides guidelines for mission members that can be applied in crisis management and peace operations.

The Benefits of Digital Communications

1. Real-time Information Dissemination: Digital communications enable the rapid dissemination of critical information to all stakeholders involved in a mission, which includes military personnel, humanitarian workers, government agencies, and international organizations. The ability to share real-time data, maps, and situational updates enhances situational awareness and decision-making.
2. Coordination and Collaboration: Digital platforms facilitate coordination and collaboration among diverse stakeholders. Tools, such as secure messaging apps, video conferencing, and shared document repositories, allow for efficient planning and execution of missions, even when teams are geographically dispersed.
3. Public Engagement and Transparency: In peace operations, engaging with local populations and building trust is essential. Social media and online platforms provide opportunities to engage with communities, share information about mission objectives, and address concerns, enhancing transparency and local support.

Challenges in Digital Communications

1. Security and Privacy: Digital communication channels are vulnerable to cyberattacks, interception, and data breaches. Ensuring the security and privacy of sensitive information is a constant challenge in these contexts.
2. Digital Divide: In some crisis-affected regions, access to reliable internet and digital devices can be limited, creating a digital divide, which can hinder effective communication with local populations and within mission teams.
3. Misinformation and Disinformation: Digital platforms should be integral players in the drive to uphold information integrity. However, the velocity, volume and virality of misinformation and disinformation on digital channels undermine these efforts. The spread of misinformation and disinformation exacerbates tensions and undermines mission objectives. Developing strategies to counteract false narratives is critical.

There are some guidelines mission personnel should follow while on a mission to ensure professionalism and the mission’s success. Here are some key recommendations:

1. Adherence to Mission Guidelines:
   • Personnel should follow the specific codes of conduct and social media policies set by their respective organizations. These guidelines often include maintaining neutrality, respecting local cultures, and avoiding actions that could compromise the mission's integrity or security.
2. Maintaining Professionalism:
   • It is crucial for personnel to always behave professionally, both in personal interactions and online, which includes avoiding partisan political statements, not engaging in debates that could be seen as biased or inflammatory, and maintaining confidentiality and discretion at all times.
3. Cultural Sensitivity:
   • Understanding and respecting local customs and sensitivities is essential. Social media posts should reflect respect for the host country’s culture, traditions, and social norms. This helps build trust and rapport with local communities.
4. Security Considerations:
   • Personnel should be cautious about sharing information that could reveal sensitive details about the mission, locations, or personal details of team members and local contacts. Geotagging, for instance, should generally be disabled to avoid disclosing the mission’s operational details.
5. Avoiding the Spread of Misinformation and Disinformation:
   • Ensure that all information shared is accurate and verifiable. Avoid spreading rumours or unverified information that could escalate tensions or misunderstandings in already sensitive or volatile environments.
6. Personal vs. Professional Use:
   • Distinguish clearly between personal and official use of social media. Personal accounts should not be used for official communications unless explicitly authorized, and such communications should always be clearly identified as personal opinions or observations, not representative of the mission or organization.
   • However, social media is a public space, even for personal use. Sharing content for personal use that is not aligned with the mission’s objectives might harm and undermine the overall mission’s efforts.   
7. Regular Training and Updates:
   • Organizations should provide regular training on social media use, focusing on the evolving nature of digital communication and its impact on field missions. Updates on social media policies should be communicated promptly to all personnel.
8. Monitoring and Enforcement:
   • Organizations should monitor social media usage to ensure compliance with policies. Consequences for breaches should be clearly defined and enforced to maintain the integrity and reputation of the mission.

Conclusion

Digital communications are integral to the success of modern crisis management missions and peace operations. While they present challenges, particularly those related to security and access, their benefits in terms of rapid information dissemination and coordination are undeniable. By continuing to develop secure, reliable, and accessible digital communication tools and adhering to a code of conduct, crisis management efforts can be significantly enhanced. 

•The United Nations is developing a Code of Conduct for information integrity on digital platforms, seeking to provide a concerted global response to information threats, which is firmly rooted in human rights, including the rights to freedom of expression and opinion and access to information, that will be available in 2024. 

• Title: Enhancing the capabilities of CSDP missions and operations to identify and respond to disinformation attacks.” Author: European Parliament. Year: 2023. 
• Title: “Disinformation against UN Peacekeeping Operations.” Author: Albert Trithart. Year: 2022.
• Title: "Digital Humanitarianism: How Tech Innovators Are Changing the Face of Humanitarian Response" Author: Patrick Meier Year: 2015.
• Title: "Information Management in Humanitarian Operations" Author: Rajesh Sharma Year: 2016.
• Title: "Social Media for Government: A Practical Guide to Understanding, Implementing, and Managing Social Media Tools in the Public Sphere" Author: Stacey J. Miller Year: 2012
• Title: "Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know" Author: P.W. Singer and Allan Friedman Year: 2014
• Title: "Peace Operations: Trends, Progress, and Prospects" Editor: Donald C. F. Daniel, Patricia Taft, and Sharon Wiharta Year: 2008.

1. Where are you going?

As a crisis manager, you have probably been told to ‘expect the unexpected’ when leaving on a mission. You might also have been told to be flexible and open enough to face all kinds of surprises. However, the fact that you are bound to encounter unexpected challenges along the way does not mean you should refrain from reading about the country of deployment and preparing yourself as well as you can. Understanding the mission background and familiarising yourself with the country of your future (temporary) home is indispensable.

Therefore, before you leave, try to get a comprehensive understanding of the environment, history, culture and living conditions of the location to which you are being deployed. Make sure you conduct the necessary research and find out more about the region’s:

• Climate and terrain;
• Food;
• People;
• Living conditions;
• Languages;
• Cultural traditions & faux pas;
• Political landscape;
• Security infrastructure;
• History;
• Geography;
• Internal influences (religion, militias, revolutionary movements, etc.);
• External or geopolitical influences;
• Economy, inflation rates, currency, exchange rates;
• History of diseases, viruses, potential health concerns;
• Disputes (e.g. history, developments, past involvement of peacekeepers, mandates).

The following is a sample list of possible sources you can draw on for general and insider information on the country of deployment:

• Contacts you may already have in the country of deployment;
• Your employer’s induction pack (if available);
• Websites of think tanks, UN, EU, ReliefWeb, Reuters, etc.;
• Situation reports, conflict analyses and briefing papers;
• University publications;
• Intercultural databases such as the World Value Survey, the Hofstede Country Comparison Tool or the CIA
• World Factbook;
• Weather forecasts;
• WHO websites on vaccinations and potential diseases;
• Mapping services (have an updated map at hand upon arrival, if available).

2. Why are you going there?

Take time to become familiar with your future employer’s mandate, purpose and background. It is your responsibil- ity to understand your mission duties and tasks before deployment. Study the employment contract and ToR for your position. If anything is unclear in your contract, ask the entity that is hiring you for clarification. Look into the available documents that form the basis of the mission to which you will be deployed: mandates, UN Security Coun- cil resolutions or, in the case of a Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) mission, look into the concept of operations (CONOPS) or the operation plan (OPLAN). You will receive these documents during your induction session.

1. Domestic arrangements

Preparing the family

It can be daunting for family members to learn of your upcoming departure. Even though they might not have to face the same challenges that you will be tackling while on the mission, your family will nonetheless have to cope with various emotional – and sometimes material – hardships while you are away. For instance, spouses often undergo the frustration of being physically separated from their partners, worrying about them constantly, while struggling to manage household responsibilities single-handedly.

Communication can be crucial when preparing your loved ones for the news of your departure. Take the time needed to explain clearly where you are going and why it is important for you to go there. For example, it could be a good opportunity to engage with them while researching and reading about the history and culture of the country of deployment, as well as your mission mandate.

Although 24-hour news reports can keep your loved ones up-to-date, consider how such rolling news might be perceived by family members. Make sure they remain aware of the risks and drawbacks that accompany around-the-clock media coverage. In order to avoid misunderstandings and misplaced concerns, you should try to maintain regular contact with family members through available means of communication.

Household chores

During deployment, your family members and spouse will most likely create new routines to manage household chores and responsibilities. Make necessary domestic arrangements before you leave.

These measures can range from paying bills for rent or utilities in advance to finding someone to water plants or look after pets. If you are facing a long period of deployment, you might need to arrange for mail to be redelivered or for someone to pick it up.

Your will and other legal documents

Before deployment, you might want to prepare a power of attorney document, a living will, and also a last will and testament. Writing a will might feel strange, but crisis management brings some risks, so it is sensible to plan for every scenario, including the worst case.

Power of attorney is a written document that allows you to give a person of your choice the authority and right to act on your behalf if any legal or economic issues arise while you are on a mission. Power of attorney (POA) can be general, limited or enduring. A general POA allows the designated person to act on your behalf in almost all legal acts. If you only wish to have them represent you on certain issues, then you can resort to a limited POA contract whereby you specify the powers and issues to be tackled by the chosen person. Finally, an enduring POA becomes valid if you lose your ability to handle your affairs (e.g. if you are injured or incapacitated). As long as you are mentally competent, and if any problems arise, you have the right to consult an attorney and revoke that power from the person you entrusted it to.

A living will is a written document in which you describe the medical treatment you do or do not wish to receive if you are seriously injured or terminally ill; it also designates a person to act and make medical decisions on your behalf, which becomes valid and takes effect only if you are not able to express your wish in any other way.

The last will and testament is a written declaration that states how you wish your property to be handled after you die. Without one, the fate of your possessions, savings and custody of children could lie in the hands of the courts.

In any case, check the national legal requirements for any of these documents in your respective country of residence. 

2. Medical arrangements

Immunisation and vaccination

You may have to work in areas with poor public health conditions. Therefore, you should get all the vaccinations required for diseases prevalent in your deployment area. Ensure your vaccinations are up-to-date and registered in an international certificate of vaccination or prophylaxis (WHO standard recommended). Take time to arrange for vaccinations before departure, and remember that some may require a few weeks before they become effective.

You may not always have time to get immunised once the phone rings telling you to be at destination X within 48 hours. If you are on an emergency roster or there is a good chance you will be deployed, ensure your vaccinations are up-to-date before that phone call. You must always ensure you are vaccinated against hepatitis A and B, typhoid, diphtheria, tetanus and poliomyelitis. Depending on your deployment area, you might also have to get vaccinated against rabies.

Yellow fever is now known to be preventable for life by a single yellow fever vaccination (standard WHO advice). At the time of writing, some countries still require a certificate showing you have received vaccination every ten years. Before your departure, check whether the countries you are travelling to require such documentation and make sure that any yellow fever vaccination is recorded with the date and signature in your international certificate of vaccination or prophylaxis. Other vaccines do not normally have to be certified except under special circumstances.

If you are being deployed to or likely to visit an area where malaria is known to occur, you will need specialist advice before going, including taking antimalarial tablets. See Chapter 5 for more information on malaria.

Diseases you are well advised to think about ahead of time include:

• Malaria;
• Meningitis – the ‘meningitis belt’ spans much of Central, East and West Africa, and some other regions;
• Yellow fever – present in much of sub-Saharan Africa and Central and South America;
• Japanese encephalitis – a risk in South and Southeast Asia;
• Cholera – a good oral cholera vaccine exists and is perhaps a wise precaution against natural disasters or complex emergencies;
• Meningococcal meningitis;
• Infectious diseases – Zika, ebola, etc.;
• COVID-19.

This list is by no means exhaustive. Get expert advice as early as possible on places where you could be deployed. 

General screenings/checkups

Ensure that you have regular health screenings or check-ups to remain in the best of health and to manage any medical problems on time.

Health screenings should include:

• General medical examination, including blood and urine tests (make sure your blood group is documented in a recorded blood test);
• Breast examination and PAP (cervical smear) for women;
• Dental check-up;
• Visual acuity;
• Chest X-rays and ECGs (EKGs) – although some agencies require them, they are not generally advised except under severe field conditions or when clinically necessary.

Ensure you know what diseases exist in the region where you are being deployed; for example, dengue fever or schistosomiasis (bilharzia) (see Chapter 5) are region-specific diseases.

It is advisable to visit a physician experienced in travel medicine as early as possible before deployment and take a first aid course to gain knowledge and confidence in case of emergencies.

Insurance

Ensure you have an insurance policy that covers everything from minor accidents and illnesses to life-threatening ones. Such insurance may be included in your work contract. However, always check the scope and detail of the cover and ensure that all the items you consider necessary are included in the policy. If not, you might want to take out private insurance in addition to what your employer offers you. 

2. Professional arrangements

Understanding the job

Before embarking on a crisis management mission, make sure you identify what your key areas of responsibility will be and how you can go about accomplishing your tasks. Handover is an essential step within that process. It can be advisable to get in touch with your predecessor(s) as well as independently try to find out information on the basic planning documents of the mission/operation, such as the concept of operations (CONOPS), the (military) operation plan (OPLAN), the mission implementation plan (MIP) and any strategic mission reviews, such as:

• The history of the project and its goals;
• Challenges, lessons and good practices;
• The location of resources and support structures;
• Key information on personnel, partners and stakeholders;
• Current needs, priorities and issues;
• Manuals, guidelines or other sources dealing with your job.

Make sure you understand and accept your job description, come to terms with your responsibilities and manage your expectations. Due to the complexity of recruitment, you might be given tasks that do not reflect your responsibilities in previous positions. To avoid bad feelings or frustration that may arise from this, you must manage your expectations before accepting a job offer.

Equipment

Each organisation has its own rules about what equipment you may or may not use during deployment. For example, if you are a police officer deployed to a civilian mission, you must check the policy on carrying firearms. Depending on the kind of mission you are embarking on and the organisation you will be working for, the equipment that you need to prepare and take with you might differ from what you are used to.

Check equipment regulations before departing and ensure that you procure what you need. 

Preparatory training and capacity building

As a crisis manager, you may already have relevant work experience. Still, your upcoming tasks may be different and new to you, depending on the nature and stage of the crisis, country of deployment, organisation and changing external factors.

So, even if you have previous experience with, for instance, the UN in Goma, you will find that your deployment to Kosovo with the EU will require new training and preparation.

Your nominating agent or employer can offer training as e-learning or as part of a course that can be physically attended. If your receiving organisation offers you a mission-specific pre-deployment training course, it is essential that you attend it.

Most organisations require their mission personnel to have recently attended a first aid course or hold a valid certificate. Make sure you are still familiar with the content and that any certificate you hold is not more than one or two years old.

For many missions, hostile environment awareness training (HEAT) or at least an electronic high-risk environment security training is a precondition for deployment. Since IT support and internet connectivity might be unreliable in the area of deployment, you should complete compulsory web-based courses before your departure.

Furthermore, most mission roles require you to hold a driving licence. In some cases, you may need to be able to drive armoured vehicles. Please be aware that your nationally issued driver’s license may not be recognized by local authorities as valid in your respective mission area, or at least not indefinitely. Inform yourself of the necessary steps to be taken to obtain an internationally recognized driver’s license, and plan for preparation and training.

1. Documents and related items

• International travel ticket;
• Valid passport (check the length of validity);
• Visa;
• Spare passport photos (plenty of them);
• Work contract and, if necessary, travel authorisation;
• International certificate of vaccinations;
• International driving licence;
• Insurance information/documentation;
• Contact information for head office, country offices, main contact person’s details in-country, embassy contact details;
• A small amount of cash in small denominations to a limit acceptable for security reasons and in a currency acceptable in the destination country (usually US dollars or other major international currencies);
• Notebook, pens and pencils;
• Deployment handbook;
• Copies of all essential documents;
• An updated map of where you are going. 

It is advisable to store important information in more than one location – for example, emergency phone numbers should not only be saved on your mobile phone.

2. Personal items

The following is a checklist of items you must consider packing before going on a mission. Some of them might be climate-, country- or organisation-specific. It is important to pack essential items in your hand luggage in case your main luggage does not arrive on time. However, be aware of hand luggage regulations and also keep in mind that in some places, the use of a camera can be restricted or forbidden.

3. Medical preparations

Medical kit

Most organisations will ensure that you are equipped with adequate first aid kits. Some organisations advise you to purchase them yourself. If you are not issued with the necessary equipment, you should carry an individual medical kit to care for minor illnesses or injuries. The contents of the medical kit should be clearly marked, including the names of the medications and instructions for their use. It is recommended that a sturdy, waterproof container be used to store the medical kit’s contents. For some quantities and types of medication, it is advisable to carry a written declaration from a doctor that confirms they are required for personal use. Suggested medical supplies include the following.

General kit:

• Prescription medicine for expected length of stay;
• Painkillers for fever, aches, etc.;
• Anti-histamines for runny noses and allergies;
• Antacids for abdominal upsets;
• Antibiotics (generic);
• Alcohol wipes;
• Bandages (triangular, elastic);
• Protective gloves;
• Scissors (not in hand luggage).

Malaria prevention kit:

• Insecticide-treated mosquito net;
• DEET-based insect repellent;
• Malaria prevention tablets;
• A standby treatment kit.

Diarrhoea treatment kit:

• Packets of oral rehydration salts, loperamide (Imodium) tablets;
• Ciprofloxacin tablets (250 mg or 500 mg);
• Water purification tablets.

Blood-borne diseases prevention kit:

• Syringes, sterile needles.

Skin protection kit:

• Sunblock/sunscreen/moisturiser;
• Powder (possibly with anti-fungal medication);
• Hydrocortisone cream against skin allergies or insect bites;
• Antiseptic cream for cuts and abrasions.

Other supplies:

• If you have a history of severe allergies (anaphylaxis), take with you two epinephrine (adrenalin) self-injection kits to ensure that one is always available;
  
• If you suffer from asthma attacks, take two sets of inhalers to ensure that one is always available;
  
• If you regularly take medication, take adequate supplies and a list of these medicines (with dosages and frequency) signed and stamped by your doctor.
  

For short-term treatment of oral rehydration, you may mix your own solution consisting of six level teaspoons of sugar and half a teaspoon of salt dissolved into one litre of clean water.

Medical records

It is recommended that you maintain your health records showing important health data. Important information should include:

• Dates and results of health checkups (including dental and visual);
• Medical illnesses and medication used;
• Allergies, particularly to medication/drugs;
• Vaccinations;
• Personal information, such as blood group;
• Health insurance details;
• Name and contact details of your usual health care provider, e.g. personal doctor or medical specialist.

D. Go green. Be green.

Climate change and environmental degradation affect human security in diverse and intersecting ways. In many cases, climate change amplifies drivers of conflicts and civilian crises. Other forms of environmental degradation often equally generate, exacerbate, or entrench pre-existing inequalities, grievances, and conflicts. These intersecting dynamics tend to compound and exacerbate each other in a vicious cycle: climate change and environmental degradation can exacerbate economic, social and political pressures and other drivers of conflict. Violent conflict, on the other hand, is not only often linked to the illegal exploitation of natural resources but generally tends to amplify and worsen environmental degradation.

Civilian crisis management missions usually operate in contexts which are particularly vulnerable to the myriad consequences of climate change and various forms of environmental degradation. In fact, a majority of the international peacekeeping or civilian crisis management missions are based in countries which are worst hit by the effects of climate change. Other factors which tend to characterise the context in which civilian crisis missions operate, such as strong local dependencies on natural resources or weak institutions and low adaptive capabilities, increase the vulnerability and risk of host nations being adversely affected by climate change. 

In other words, the effects of climate change and environmental degradation are directly relevant to the context of civilian EU CSDP missions. Read more about what this means in terms of the missions’ mandates and how to integrate climate and environmental considerations in their responses to conflicts and crises in the sections on Environmental Peacebuilding in Chapter 2. 

At this stage, it is important to recognise that mission activities can have unintended and adverse environmental effects. The impact of international civilian crisis management missions on the environment can range from localised pollution to broader ecological disruptions, often stemming from logistical operations, infrastructure construction, and resource utilisation.

To illustrate this, consider the examples below of how international missions can negatively affect on the environment regarding specific areas of degradation.

Pollution and Contamination:

• 
  The deployment of large numbers of personnel and equipment in crisis-affected areas can lead to increased pollution, including air and water pollution, noise pollution, and soil contamination.
• Improper waste management practices, including the disposal of hazardous materials and the inadequate treatment of sewage and wastewater, can contaminate local ecosystems and pose health risks to humans and wildlife.

Deforestation and Habitat Loss:

• International missions may require the establishment of bases, camps, and infrastructure, which can lead to deforestation and habitat loss.
• The clearing of land, e.g. constructing roads and, helipads can disrupt ecosystems, fragment habitats, and threaten biodiversity.

Resource Consumption and Depletion:

• Large-scale resource consumption by civilian crisis management missions, such as water, fuel, and food, can strain local resources and contribute to their depletion.
• Unsustainable extraction of natural resources, such as timber or water for mission operations, can exacerbate environmental degradation and further aggravate existing resource scarcity in crisis-affected areas.

Soil Erosion and Land Degradation:

• Activities associated with civilian crisis management missions, such as vehicle movement, infrastructure construction, and earthworks, can contribute to soil erosion and land degradation.
• The disturbance of soil and vegetation cover can increase the vulnerability of landscapes to erosion, leading to the loss of topsoil, reduced agricultural productivity, and diminished resilience of local ecosystems.

It is, therefore, crucial for staff involved in civilian crisis management to be aware of these adverse environmental effects. By incorporating environmental considerations and adopting sustainable practices, missions can minimise their ecological footprint, protect fragile ecosystems, contribute to the long-term well-being of crisis-affected regions and combat many of the contributing factors to violent conflicts and crises. As a minimum standard, civilian crisis management missions should, therefore, ensure that they ‘Do No Harm’ or, in other words, do not contribute to the unsustainable management of natural resources or environmental degradation. At best, by adopting sustainable, environmentally sound and responsible policies, missions and their staff lead by example in contributing to the restoration and recovery of ecosystems and reducing the risks of further damage or crises by improving the environmental conditions.  

It is thus that international organisations make increasing efforts to reduce the environmental footprint of their missions. The UN’s journey towards climate neutrality began in 2007. Since then, the Greening the Blue Initiative has advanced the UN’s transition towards greater environmental sustainability by publishing reports, compiling recommendations, and structuring the UN efforts in this area. The UN Environmental Policy for Peacekeeping Operations and Field-Based Special Political Missions clearly sets out minimum standards and responsibilities in peacekeeping missions to avoid and minimise their negative environmental impacts.

In 2022, the EU published its Operational Guidelines for Integrating Environmental and Climate Aspects into Civilian CSDP Missions, which aim to raise awareness in missions, enforce the duty of care by mitigating the effects of environmental pollution and other challenges, and optimise the use of resources and energy in missions, thereby reducing the missions’ environmental footprints. The guidelines clearly set out the responsibilities for individual steps to be taken by missions to integrate environmental and climate aspects.

While it is important that you familiarise yourself with the policies and operational guidelines of your organisation for more clarity on your specific duties and responsibilities regarding climate and environmental aspects, start your climate and environmentally sustainable actions by keeping the following guidelines in mind.

Compliance with International Standards:

• Familiarise yourself with international standards and guidelines such as Sphere Standards, UN Environmental Policies, the EU Operational Guidelines and relevant local environmental regulations.
• Follow these standards and ensure that other staff members are aware of and comply with them.

Incorporate Environmental Considerations:

• Ensure that environmental considerations are integrated into all aspects of the mission, including planning, decision-making, and operations. 
• Assess and analyse potential environmental impacts and risks associated with the mission's activities.

Environmental Impact Assessment:

• Conduct an environmental impact assessment (EIA) for significant initiatives or projects that could harm the environment. Useful tools include the Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment (REA) or the Nexus Environmental Assessment Tool (NEAT+).
• Mitigate identified risks and implement appropriate measures to minimise environmental impacts.

Minimise Environmental Footprint:

• Strive to minimise the mission's environmental footprint by adopting environmentally friendly practices and technologies.
• Promote waste reduction, recycling, and responsible resource consumption within the mission's operations.

Sustainable Procurement:

• When procuring goods and services, prioritise environmentally sustainable options. Consider the environmental impact throughout the entire lifecycle of the product or service, including production, transportation, and disposal.
• Choose energy-efficient products, equipment and appliances that have a lower impact on energy consumption. Consider longevity, reusability, refillability and recyclability when buying office equipment such as printers, scanners and photocopiers. For further information, you might want to have a look at the UN sustainable procurement tools.

Protect Natural Resources:

• Promote the sustainable use and protection of natural resources such as forests, water bodies, and biodiversity.
• Avoid activities that could lead to deforestation, overfishing, or degradation of ecosystems.

Waste Management:

• Develop and implement effective waste management systems, including proper collection, separation, recycling, and disposal of waste.
• Ensure that hazardous materials are handled, stored, and disposed of safely, following international best practices such as those by the Sphere project. Also, see the
  Disaster Waste Management Guidelines of the Environmental Emergencies Centre (joint unit of UN Environment/OCHA) for further guidance.

Energy Efficiency:

• Promote energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy sources within the mission's facilities and operations.
• Adopt energy-saving practices, such as reducing electricity consumption and utilising energy-efficient equipment, and encourage staff members to do the same.

Collaboration and Partnerships:

• 
  Collaborate with local authorities, communities, and relevant stakeholders to enhance environmental protection efforts.
• Engage with local environmental organizations and experts to leverage their knowledge and expertise.

Environmental Training and Awareness:

• Foster awareness among staff about the importance of environmental protection and their individual responsibilities. 
• If applicable, provide training and capacity-building opportunities to staff members on environmental protection, including relevant laws, regulations, and best practices. The UN has a great Greening the Blue Tutorial that is open to all and offers advice on how individuals can improve their environmental performance in the workplace.
• Lead by example.

Reporting and Monitoring:

• Establish and adhere to mechanisms for monitoring and reporting environmental impacts and incidents promptly. 
• Regularly evaluate the mission's or your individual environmental performance and make necessary adjustments to improve effectiveness.

Not all staff members will be equally responsible for the above-raised standards and elements. Environmental Advisors or Focal Points in EU or UN missions may have specific duties regarding environmental aspects. However, in many cases, you will be asked to contribute to these activities, and often individual staff members can do a lot themselves. Below are some basic and practical examples of what every individual can contribute:

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: The three Rs of waste minimisation

Office procurement and waste minimisation should embrace the three Rs: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle! Although recycling measures require an off-site recycling system (which may not be in place in some countries), there is some advice below for putting the three Rs into practice.

Reduce:

• Avoid printing unless necessary and always print double-sided documents;
• Implement a paper-free electronic database for information storage and communication within your office.

Reuse:

• Reuse single-sided paper for draft copies or notepaper;
• Reuse folders, file clips and covers;
• Encourage staff to use reusable cups, crockery and cutlery for lunch and tea breaks to avoid unnecessary waste.

Recycle:

• Construct a primary recycling station in a central location within the office;
• Every desk should have a paper-recycling box;
• Recycle used printer toner cartridges. Toner cartridges contain harmful chemicals that should not be placed in landfills.

Reduce emissions

Most organisations encourage staff to reduce their environmental footprint in different ways, for example, by avoiding unnecessary travel in missions by conducting meetings through videoconferences or the internet. Under certain circumstances, solar panels can be deployed as a power source on remote bases. Other areas to reduce emissions include:

• Travel. Reduce travelling and support more efficient travel through a proper travel policy (e.g. use environmentally friendly cars/trucks, trains and eco-driving techniques).
• Buildings. Take active and passive measures to reduce consumption (e.g. use natural lighting, improve the efficiency of whatever functions use energy).

Use resources sparingly

To reduce energy consumption, consider the following regarding office supplies and equipment:

• Use natural light wherever possible.
• Replace traditional incandescent bulbs with fluorescent bulbs to reduce running costs by up to 75 % and energy consumption by 20–30 %. Replace any existing 50W halogen lights with 20W lights.
• Use separate light switches for different areas in your office.
• Install movement sensors or timer switches in store rooms, meeting rooms and photocopy rooms to reduce light usage. Put up eye-catching energy-saving reminder signs and stickers.
• Switch all electronic equipment off when not in use (e.g. at night) and set programme equipment to hibernate when not in use during office hours.
• Make sure your computer settings are capable of the following energy-saving functions after the respective period of inactivity: 15 minutes – monitor hibernation mode (switches off); 30 minutes – system standby (hard drive switches off); 2 hours – system hibernation (entire system switches off).
• Deactivate your screensaver. Monitors should be set to hibernation, as screensavers often waste energy rather than save it.
• Minimise the number of photocopiers and printers in the office. Turn off photocopiers during periods of inactivity. The majority of electricity used by photocopiers is in the initial ‘warm up’ stage. Save your copying tasks up and do them in one batch.

Air conditioning

Climate control accounts for about 40 % of an office’s energy use. There are opportunities for big savings in energy efficiency can be found in your heating, cooling and ventilation (HVAC) systems.

Some tips:

• Use natural ventilation and fans where possible.
• Set air-conditioner systems to a minimum of 24° Celsius.
• If you use air-conditioning, close all windows and doors to reduce the escape of cool air.
• Switch off heating and cooling after office hours. Make sure to switch off your A/C in your accommodation before going on leave. 

Water

• When boiling the kettle, only use as much water as you need.
• If you use a washing machine for your clothes and linen, wait until you can fill the machine fully.
• Use low-flow showerheads and taps (less than 10 litres per minute). A tap aerator reduces the use of hot water.
• Use press taps and adjust toilet cisterns to control water consumption. Use recycled water instead of drinking water for flushing toilets.
• Collect rainwater and store it in tanks (to prevent mosquitoes from breeding there, put mosquito nets over the top). You can use it for showers and washing hands and dishes.

1. Standard operating procedures (SOPs)

The first thing you need to familiarise yourself with is the document outlining the standard operating procedures (SOPs) of the organisation you are working for. This document, which will be used to guide your everyday activities while on mission, usually consists of the following elements:

• Statement of purpose – what the SOP is trying to achieve;
• Tasks – what needs doing and how;
• Responsibilities – who does what;
• Timing and sequence of actions;
• Supporting documents and templates.

SOPs generally cover activities related to personnel management, financial management, vehicle management, assessments, curfews, checkpoints, communications, safety and security issues, etc. The following sections will highlight some of these aspects. However, since each mission and situation will determine the specific content and nature of an SOP, you should ensure that you know and have a copy of the SOP related to your respective mission and organisation.

2. Respect the code of conduct and ethical principles

Representing your organisation, 24 hours a day

While on a mission, you must remain aware that your conduct is subject to continuous scrutiny by local and international observers. Since you will be representing your organisation and reflecting its image 24 hours a day, you will often feel overwhelmed by many expectations, most of which will be based on universally recognised international legal norms and disciplinary regulations that you might not have been familiar with before going on a mission. Therefore, before you rush into action and end up tainting your reputation and that of your organisation, you should read, understand and abide by the staff code of conduct and ethical principles, such as independence, impartiality, objectivity and loyalty.

Your organisation’s code of conduct is designed to guide you in upholding the highest standards of professionalism and morality when making decisions and must be adhered to at all times. The following are some of the elements that you are bound to encounter in a code of conduct:

• You have a duty not to abuse your position of authority.
• Misconduct of any kind is unacceptable and will result in the imposition of disciplinary measures.
• You must observe local laws and customs and show respect for traditions, culture, and religion.
• You must be impartial and diplomatic and treat people with respect and civility.
• Mission resources and money must be accounted for in line with the organisation’s policies and procedures.
• Most importantly, you must adhere to a zero-tolerance policy on exploitation and abuse. Considering the gravity of this issue and its widespread occurrence in the field, it will be further analysed in the following section.

Channels for complaint – the ombudsman

Over time, several mechanisms have been developed and used to probe and ensure that organisations and individuals act accountable. One of these mechanisms has been the use of an ombudsman.

Organisational ombudspersons are often neutral personnel who mediate and resolve disputes or other work-related complications while providing confidential and independent support and advice to employees or other stakeholders. Using Ombudsmen offices is voluntary: they complement formal channels but do not replace them. Informality is often essential, allowing participants to explore various options across organisational boundaries. Ombudsmen are generally referred to as the ultimate ‘inside outsiders’ and are known for handling employees’ complaints and grievances and guiding them in the right direction.

The European Ombudsman, for example, is an independent and impartial body that holds the EU administration to account. The EU Ombudsman investigates complaints about maladministration in EU institutions, bodies, offices and agencies. Only the Court of Justice of the European Union, acting in its judicial capacity, falls outside the EU Ombudsman’s mandate.

The UN General Assembly created the United Nations Ombudsman and Mediation Services (UNOMS) with responsibilities for UN staff and peacekeeping missions, including ombudspersons attached to peacekeeping missions in Entebbe and Kinshasa.

The ombudsperson may find maladministration if an institution fails to respect fundamental rights, legal rules or principles, or the principles of good administration, which covers, for example, administrative irregularities, unfairness, discrimination, abuse of power, failure to reply, refusal of information, and unnecessary delay.

Therefore, if you ever witness (or fall victim to) any organisational misconduct, you should not hesitate to contact the ombudsperson for advice and seek guidance on how to proceed with the violation.

Examples of complaint mechanisms in different organisations include:

• European Ombudsman;
• UN Office of Internal Oversight Services;
• OSCE Office of Internal Oversight.

1. Respecting your host culture

The environment of a crisis management mission brings together people from various professional fields who may not be used to working together, such as military officers and enlisted personnel from different services, NGOs of varying scope and size, international civil servants and diplomats, all of whom have different national, institutional and personal backgrounds.

In any encounter that includes such diversity, tensions and conflicts can arise, and a clash of cultures is often inevitable.

In a mission, the situation is often complicated by the intersection of diverse organisational and national cultures and sometimes differing interests. Missions bring heterogeneous personnel into contact with local people who usually draw upon cultural backgrounds different from those of the operation and its staff. Therefore, they are culturally conditioned to think, act and interpret others’ actions differently. The potential for culturally-based misunderstandings and conflicts is thereby increased.

For example, you might have to deal with people and cultures whose basic speech patterns greatly differ from yours. In non-Western cultures, for instance, using indirect speech patterns or implicit phrasing when communicating with colleagues is prevalent. Some cultures are used to adopting very collectivist approaches (as opposed to the individualist ones you might be accustomed to) regarding work processes, which may lead, for example, to a preference for top-down decision-making over inclusive decision-making structures and authoritative over egalitarian leadership and management styles. In addition, while you might be used to static and strict work rules, you will discover that some cultures embrace change and fluctuation as part of their everyday work and life, which may have significant implications for the expectations that people hold towards each other regarding time and punctuality.

Despite all the frustrations that might result from dealing with foreign cultures, remember that crisis management missions aim to empower people and should always draw on local capacity and culture instead of imposing foreign techniques and customs in peacebuilding and reform.

Unfortunately, missions often cater to the organisation's interests and the crisis managers' operational culture, which can significantly undermine the legitimacy of the deployed professionals and contribute to an image of them as ‘occupiers’ or ‘colonialists’.

To avoid such insensitivities, you should try to build bridges of trust between yourself and your organisation on the one hand and the host community on the other. Reading anthropological and cultural guides about the people you will be interacting with beforehand can help avoid misunderstandings and embarrassment. Perhaps even more importantly, you must be aware of your cultural background and its historical context, which is crucial because your nationality and country of origin may have a historical footprint of colonialism and occupation, and your local partners and counterparts may (sub-)consciously associate you with that history.

Cultural sensitivity is not only about learning another culture’s customs and history but also about learning and acquiring a deeper understanding of your own.

Publicly available resources that you could consult to increase your understanding of (certain aspects of) the mission’s regional, national or local culture are listed below:

• The World Value Survey Database;
• Hofstede’s Insights Country Comparison Tool;
• Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE); 
• PEW Research on Global Morality.

2. Trusting behaviours

As outlined by Stephen Covey in The Speed of Trust, the following actions can be useful for creating a trusting atmosphere:

• Tell the truth. Be honest. Exercise integrity. Let people know where you stand. Use simple language. Do not manipulate or spin the truth. Do not leave false impressions.
• Demonstrate respect. Note the importance of the little things. Genuinely care. Treat people with dignity. Take time. Listen.
• Create transparency.
• Right wrongs. Correct mistakes. Apologise quickly. Demonstrate humility.
• Deliver results. Establish a track record of getting the right things done. Make things happen. Do not over-promise and under-deliver. Do not make excuses for not delivering.
• Constantly improve. Be a learner. Develop feedback mechanisms. Act on feedback and appreciate it. 
• Clarify expectations. Disclose expectations. Discuss them and validate them. Be realistic. Do not create expectations that you will not be able to meet. Do not assume that expectations are shared or clear.
• Listen before you speak. Understand. Listen with your ears, eyes and heart. Do not presume you have all the answers or know what is best for others. Ask them. Demonstrate understanding and compassion.

1. Personal communication

The mission you work on might have a policy on the personal use of blogs, Facebook, Twitter, and other media in connection with mission activities. No mission member should make statements on social media or to the press on behalf of the mission unless they have received clearance to do so.

You should always be aware of identity thieves and fraudsters and consider your professional reputation and mission. Some parts of the media might be looking out for a story about public officials that could be embarrassing.

It is important to remember that once you ‘click’, the information you have provided remains in the public domain – forever. You cannot control what people do with that information and whether third parties can access it. Social networks such as Facebook can provide access to your personal information.

Some tips:

• Keep official and private information separate.
• Keep privacy settings high and consult them regularly. Be wary of posting personal information and disclosing financial details.
• Do not hesitate to block or report someone who is making inappropriate comments or advances.
• Keep pictures for your friends and consider what could happen if they become public.
• Never post anything on social media about an ongoing or future security incident. By doing so, you could endanger yourself or your colleagues, or you might hamper ongoing investigations.

2. Internal communication

Internal communication within a mission includes information gathering, dissemination and interactivity. Possible internal communication tools include the intranet, open days, internal billboarding and mission newsletters, as well as data management charts, team meetings, morning briefings, mentoring and exchange programmes and field office maintenance days. Internal communication should ensure that every mission member clearly understands the mission’s mandate, its main elements, achievements and milestones. This information should be available in a format and wording that allows sharing with non-mission members. Consider providing information through internal communication even before you go public. 

Amongst other benefits, this has a trust-building effect on all mission staff, as well as on the institutional memory and the strength of common values. Mission personnel should be aware of the mission's current programmes and political, social and other factors in the host country that may affect the mission’s endeavours. All mission staff are ambassadors of the mission and important multipliers of information.

Remember that with all these tools and a large quantity of staff within the mission, there is a strong likelihood that whatever is conveyed and intended as purely internal communication will get out to the public. Therefore, it is better to communicate sensitive issues or messages for purely internal consumption in person.

3. Crisis communication

Missions have both an obligation and a vital self-interest in communicating frequently and transparently about their work. Therefore, communication and media relations should be regarded as an opportunity rather than a challenge or threat. The key is to coordinate effectively with your press and communication team members. Everyone must know what their tasks are. A simple procedure – or plan – for crisis communication should be established in advance. Transparency – as much as possible under safety and security considerations – builds trust and is an important foundation for public acceptance of the mission.

Managing relationships with the media and answering their queries requires trained staff. Whenever possible, refer requests for comments or information to your mission's assigned staff or designated spokesperson.

Never say “no comment”, speculate, or lie. Give the basic information you have, offer to provide more details as soon as you have them and remember to do so. Focus on communicating facts, never speculate, and avoid the communication vacuum that lets rumours take the lead. Clarify facts as best you can: who, what, when, where, why and how?

Use short sentences and simple words; avoid jargon, acronyms, humour or judgemental expressions. Speak clearly and calmly. Try to transmit one idea per sentence. 

Ensure your body language matches your message. There are no ‘off-the-record’ comments. Assume that everything you share will be used in one way or the other.

4. Media monitoring and rebuttals

A successful media monitoring operation is crucial to the mission's work. Fast and accurate reporting and summarising of what is currently running in the broadcast, print, and online media is important for responding to public perceptions about the mission’s work and developing a keen awareness of the topics dominating the environment ‘out there’. It gives you the information you need and the methods to counter negative coverage or encourage positive coverage of the mission’s work.

Crisis management missions habitually operate in an environment where rumour and conspiracy theories are often the currencies of public debate. Universal access to social media has also increased the scope and the speed with which disinformation is fabricated and distributed. False information can soon become ‘fact’. It is, therefore, necessary to respond quickly and energetically to inaccurate and sometimes malicious reporting about the mission's work.

Principles of Rebuttal

• Speed. The mission must respond quickly to reports by wire services because wire services provide news for other media outlets and have an immediate and multiplying effect.
• Accuracy. The mission must be 100 % certain that it is right. The Press and Public Information Office (PPIO) should double-check its facts to ensure the rebuttal is accurate and correct.
• Proportionate response. Do we need to respond? If we do, who should we be in touch with? How should we make contact (e.g. phone, email, meeting)? Should it be formal or informal? How strong should our language be?

1. Dress codes

Dress codes exist to help you ensure a level of decency and decorum and to present your image respectfully at all times. Your organisation might have specific dress codes, but what is appropriate depends on many factors, such as the country you work in, the cultural and religious context, and whether you are a man or a woman, which means you must always inform yourself of the mission standards and national customs. Depending on the cultural and religious context, women are required to pay specific attention to modest and appropriate clothing, not only to show respect for local customs and culture but also to avoid harassment.

Even if you disagree with certain dress codes, always remember that you are a guest and that you express respect or disrespect for your national partners and hosts through the way you dress. The dress code also applies to remote field locations. If you meet local authorities or security forces, make sure you visit them wearing appropriate clothing.

If you have trouble deciding what to wear, there are some general guidelines that you should follow:

• Dress down, not up. This does not mean that you have to fake a scruffy and dirty look. But you also do not want to wear flashy sunglasses, designer scarves and cashmere sweaters among locals who might be struggling to make ends meet. Parading your wealth around will not make you more popular, nor will it win the locals’ admiration. If anything, it might make you a suitable target for theft.
• Keep it simple. A plastic watch, a plain sweater or shirt, some slacks and strong shoes will go a long way.

2. Recognising different uniforms

There will be mission-specific policies on the use of clothing and uniforms. In some missions, your national uniform (in case you have one) may be accepted as is or in coordination with a mission uniform. This may vary with the type of position you hold. Some common mission uniforms and accessories that you can easily identify while in the field include:

• The UN sky blue beret/helmet: UN peacekeepers usually retain the right to wear their own country’s national uniforms but can be distinguished from other peacekeeping forces by their light blue berets, helmets and UN insignia.
• The EU royal blue beret and gilet: EU troops also wear their respective countries’ military and police uniforms. They often complement their outfits with EU royal blue uniform clothing items (e.g. gilet and beret/cap) when on patrol, which is part of developing a common identity and contributes to staff safety.
• The AU light green beret: even though AU troops are generally known for wearing the light green beret and AU insignia while on peacekeeping missions, this might not always be the case. Keep in mind that they might sometimes choose to replace their green berets with blue UN berets/helmets (or that of any other international organisation in the field) as they did in Darfur in 2008. So make sure you keep yourself updated on such changes and decisions.

1. Learning the local language

Knowing the (body) language and customs of the country or area you are deployed to can greatly impact the operational outcomes of your mission. Learning some basics and useful phrases as well as non-verbal cues (such as the tone of voice, gestures and specific body language) before deployment will be seen as an expression of cultural sensitivity and will reflect your interest in that culture and your respect for its people.

Before departing to a field location, prepare and practice useful concise phrases and try to use commonly known words. Be careful of your body language and gestures, as they are sometimes as or even more important than verbal communication.

2. Working with an interpreter

Interpreters in the mission environment serve as cultural interlocutors and liaisons between the international peacekeepers and the local population. Interpreters can also be your local specialists in public relations. They can often suggest the best way to interact with people from different cultural backgrounds and can notice nuances that you might overlook as a non-local person.

No matter how advanced you judge yourself to be in the local language, employing an interpreter can prove indispensable in certain situations, for example:

• During risky negotiations, highly complex meetings or when detailed and sensitive information is being discussed to ensure the message is conveyed with the necessary levels of accuracy and precision.
• During stressful situations, when your ability to express yourself in the local language might be hindered. 

Wherever possible, prepare meetings with your interpreter and discuss the purpose and expected outcome of the meeting. Gather information on the persons you are going to meet. Make sure you are using terminology that can be easily understood and interpreted. If you have to use specialised terminology, check with your interpreter beforehand how they will explain this in the local language, especially if there is no direct translation for certain expressions or words.

Finding the right interpreter

When interviewing translators and interpreters, you should keep the selection standards as high as possible. Remember that the quality of interpretation can have a substantial effect on your mission’s image, expertise, efficiency and security as well as on the success of your task. 

Before the selection process, make sure you look out for the following general prerequisites and criteria:

• Language proficiency. Interpreters should be bilingual in both source and target languages. Make sure they undergo an oral test to assess their general command of both languages and their interpretation skills. Translators should undergo an additional written test.
• Competency. Candidates should be able to work accurately and quickly. Interpreters should be trained public speakers who can understand the meaning and tackle sophisticated linguistic problems quickly. Translators, on the other hand, should be able to conduct thorough research and produce precise, ‘camera-ready’ documents within tight deadlines.
• Neutrality. You should attempt to find candidates who are both locally engaged and unbiased in their judgements, which might be quite challenging, considering that locals could have been victims of direct or indirect violence and abuse, so they are likely to have psychological scars and problems that could affect their neutrality.

Forms of interpretation

There is more to interpretation than simply translating words. It is a matter of understanding the thoughts expressed in the source language and then paraphrasing them in a way that preserves the initial message using words from the target language.

Interpretation can be performed in the following two modes:

• Consecutive interpretation. This is usually performed during formal negotiations. The interpreter listens to the speech made, takes notes and then interprets the main message to you after the person has done a segment of the speech. Usually, the speaker stops every 1–5 minutes (at the end of a paragraph or a thought) to allow the interpreter to render what was said into the target language.
• Simultaneous interpretation. This is more challenging than consecutive interpretation. In simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter has to convey the message at the end of every sentence (or at least as soon as he understands the message of the speaker) while simultaneously actively listening to and comprehending the next sentence. Whispered interpretation is a simultaneous interpretation where the interpreter whispers their translation to a person or small group.

Protecting your interpreter

You should remember at all times that interpreters often place their safety and security at stake simply by choosing to work for international peacekeeping missions and operations. Their notes might contain sensitive information that the authorities could be interested in. Hence, they risk being debriefed, questioned or even arrested to reveal confidential information.

It is, therefore, vital to watch out for the safety of your interpreter and remember that, in most cases, they do not get a chance to leave the field when you do and could suffer the consequences of being employed by international peacekeeping missions and operations long after they have been dismantled.

If possible, use international interpreters for meetings which might compromise the national interpreter’s security. Do not, under any circumstances, allow national stakeholders to photograph your local staff or interpreters, especially if you will discuss conflict-related issues with them.

1. General health advice

General behaviour

Organise a health check before starting your mission if your employer does not do it. Some diseases (e.g. psychiatric diseases, alcoholism, heart failure, strokes, cancer under treatment, epileptic diseases) will exclude you from missions in crisis areas, but this is absolutely necessary for your safety and the team’s security!

The health check must include checking your immunisation status. There are vaccinations available against many life-threatening diseases (e.g. yellow fever, hepatitis B, encephalitis, rabies). Follow the recommendations of the institutes for tropical medicine. See Chapter 3 for more details on pre-deployment vaccinations and health screenings. 

If you suffer from a chronic disease, ensure you are in a stable condition before you depart. Be sure that you have access to sufficient medication. You may need a special certificate to clear your medication through customs.

In case of sickness, stop work and visit a medical specialist as soon as possible. If you spread disease through the mission, it is a risk for you your mission colleagues.

Check your first aid kit regularly and ensure you know how to use the equipment. Ask for additional medication and advice if no medical treatment is available for a certain period (e.g. during duty trips).

You can avoid most diseases by following some simple rules. Contaminated water and food, along with disease vectors (e.g. mosquitoes, sandflies), are the most common ways in which life-threatening infectious diseases are transmitted.

Do not expect only tropical diseases. ‘Normal’ illnesses, such as heart attacks or strokes, can also happen during your mission. If you experience symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath, or paresthesia (tingling sensation), contact your mission’s medical service or the emergency services immediately.

Establish the leading health risks in your area of deployment and the most reliable health facilities, preferably well before you arrive in the mission area.

Avoid excessive alcohol consumption and all other substance abuse.

Food safety

Abiding by the following rules before eating could eliminate the main reasons crisis managers fall ill. The following recommendations apply to food vendors on the street as well as expensive hotel restaurants:

• Cooked food kept at room temperature or under the sun for several hours constitutes one of the greatest risks of foodborne illness. Ensure your food has been thoroughly and recently cooked and is still hot when served.
• Egg yolks should be firm and not runny.
• Avoid any uncooked food apart from fruit and vegetables that can be peeled or shelled. Avoid fruit with damaged skin. Remember the dictum ‘cook it, peel it or leave it’.
• Ice cubes and ice cream from unreliable sources are frequently contaminated and may cause illness. Avoid them.
• Certain fish and shellfish species may contain poisonous biotoxins even if they are well-cooked. If you are not sure, avoid them.
• Some table sauces in restaurants are diluted with unsafe water.

Water safety

Your body weight is more than 50 % water. Without water, you couldn’t maintain a normal body temperature or eliminate waste through urination, sweat and bowel movements.

Not getting enough water can lead to dehydration, which can cause muscle weakness and cramping, a lack of coordination, and an increased risk of heat exhaustion and heat stroke. In general, a person cannot last for more than three days without water. Your body needs enough water to replace what you lose daily through urination, sweating and even exhaling. The Institute of Medicine has determined that an adequate intake for men is roughly 13 cups (three litres) of beverages daily, while women should drink about 9 cups (2.2 litres) daily. However, in warm or hot weather, after vigorous exercise or during illness (e.g. fever, vomiting or diarrhoea), additional water is needed, sometimes considerably more.

Apart from drinking enough water, you must ensure you take in enough electrolytes, such as sodium (salt), potassium and sugar. When sweating due to illness, heat or exertion, it is important to use oral rehydration salts, sometimes several times a day, to restore energy.

Contaminated water is one of the main reasons people fall ill during their stay in foreign countries. Risks of diseases caused by unclean water can be minimised if you follow some simple rules:

• When the safety of drinking water is doubtful, filter it. Boil it for a full minute (ideally for three minutes if at an altitude of over 2,000 metres), or use reliable disinfectant tablets/liquid/UV light water purifiers.
• Water-cleaning filters are not always safe. Only use good-quality filters and follow the instructions carefully.
• Avoid ice cubes in your drinks.
• Beverages such as hot tea or coffee, wine, beer, carbonated soft drinks or fruit juices that are either bottled or packaged are usually safe to drink. Check that the lid of the bottle is properly sealed before purchasing.
• Boil unpasteurised milk before consumption. Buy and use bottled water whenever possible – even for brushing your teeth. 

2. Hygiene

The following notes on hygiene should go without saying, but there is no harm in reminding yourself of some of the most important basics. In certain situations, it may not be possible to maintain the standard of hygiene you are used to at home. However, the following points are important for preventing infection and contributing to your general health and well-being.

Care of the body:

• Try to wash your body with a warm bath or shower whenever possible. It is essential for personal health and hygiene, as is wearing clean underwear.
• Be sure to visit a physician regularly. Schedule an appointment with your home physician when you are back on leave.
• If living in shared housing or accommodation, use flip-flops to shower (one pair to walk to the shower, another pair in the shower).
• Wash your clothes regularly, especially underwear.
• Be aware that some hygiene products, such as tampons, may not be available in the country of deployment.

Care of hands and nails:

• Wash and clean your hands and nails thoroughly after visiting the toilet and before handling any food.
• Cut nails regularly.
• No person who has sores, cuts or broken skin on their hands should handle food. Disease-causing microorganisms can be transferred in this manner.

Procedures for the washing of hands:

• Use soap.
• Moisten hands, wrists and forearms and apply soap to the palm of one hand and rub over the hands, wrists, forearms and between fingers. Do this with care and thoroughness, not in a hurry.
• Rinse hands thoroughly under clean and, if possible, hot running water.
• Dry hands and arms with a disposable paper towel, starting with the hands and ending at the elbows.

Alcohol gel, hand sanitiser, or antibacterial dry wash effectively kills germs and is worth using frequently. If hands are visibly dirty, then using soap and water is preferable. Dry your hands before using disinfectants; it will damage the skin if you do not. 

Large numbers of germs are transferred when shaking hands and through touch. Respiratory infections and diarrhoea are caused by dirty hands touching the face and mouth. Regular use of alcohol gel will reduce your risk of these common and annoying conditions. During ongoing epidemics, e.g. influenza, use antiviral hand disinfectant regularly.

Dental care:

• To keep your teeth clean and healthy, brush them at least twice a day.
• Try to schedule regular dentist appointments when you are on leave back home.

Foot care:

• Wear clean, comfortable, closed shoes with closed heels, sufficient room for the toes and good arch support.
• Wear clean socks or stockings.

Protective clothing:

• Wear clean, well-fitting, adequate protective clothing and change it daily (if possible).
• Store clean clothing separately from dirty clothing.
• Wear your hair away from the face and not hanging over the collar of protective clothing.

3. Common illnesses: diarrhoea, fever and malaria

Diarrhoea

Diarrhoea is a common problem when travelling. To avoid getting diarrhoea, ensure that hand-washing and hygiene are given attention and the source of water consumed is safe. Many diarrhoea attacks are caused by viruses, bacteria or unusual food (e.g. camel milk) – these are self-limiting and clear up in a few days. It is important to avoid becoming dehydrated. As soon as diarrhoea occurs, drink more fluids, such as bottled, boiled or treated water or weak tea. Eat slowly and sensibly, if possible, and avoid dairy products as they aggravate diarrhoea.

The body loses water, salts (especially sodium and potassium), water-soluble vitamins and other important trace minerals through diarrhoea. To replenish some of these losses, you should consume at least three litres of fluid within the first three hours and continuously drink fluids after that, especially oral rehydration solution (ORS), in the correct dilution. If there is no ORS available, you can create your solution with six level teaspoons of sugar and half a level teaspoon of salt added to one litre of clean water (WHO recommendation).

Evidence and experience show that loperamide, such as Imodium or antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin and azithromycin, can reduce the frequency and severity of diarrhoea in about seven out of 10 cases and can be taken as part of the medical kit. They can be especially helpful when work, travel or important engagements may otherwise be disrupted.

You should seek medical help if there is blood in your stools or accompanying fever and vomiting. Diarrhoea that lasts for more than three days requires medical attention.

Use your own toilet in case of diarrhoea or, if this is not possible, clean the toilet and washbasin properly and use disinfectant after each visit to the bathroom.

Fever

A high body temperature (i.e. 38.5 °C or more) should always be taken seriously, especially if you are in a malaria-prone area or have come from one in the past. You should see a doctor if a fever persists or is worsening. It helps to be aware of some important causes of fever, outlined below.

• Meningitis: severe headache, stiff neck, often a rash that does not fade when you touch it.
• Acute bilharzia or Katayama fever: often accompanied by wheezing and itching 20 or more days after swimming in an area where bilharzia is common, such as Lake Victoria or Lake Malawi.
• Urinary tract infection: aching in the loins, often with nausea, shivering, and frequent urination, creating a burning sensation.
• Typhoid: progressive fever and feeling increasingly ill with no response to malaria treatment, usually accompanied by diarrhoea, sometimes by coughing and sometimes by a faint rash.
• Blood poisoning, also known as sepsis or septicaemia: alternate shivering and sweating, often in the presence of an infected bite or other skin infection like a boil or cellulitis (warm infected feet or legs).
• Heat stroke also causes high temperature.

Malaria  

If you are in a malarial zone, this is an essential list of precautions:

• Take your malaria prevention tablets.
• Use a DEET-based insect repellent for the skin (a concentration of 50 % DEET is now recommended).
• Wear long-sleeved, repellent-treated clothes and cover the feet with strong shoes. Close the gap between shoes and trousers.
• Keep skin covered as much as possible, from before dusk till dawn. Keep in mind that some mosquitoes also bite during the day.
• Sleep under an insecticide-treated mosquito net.
• Take a standby treatment kit.
• If dengue fever, chikungunya or Zika are likely present, protect yourself from day-biting mosquitoes. The Aedes mosquito causes these three illnesses by biting during the day, especially early morning and late afternoon.

Even if you take all these precautions, you may still get malaria. Whenever you travel, take your malaria standby treatment kit with you. Consult your doctor on the type of treatment kit and prevention tablets since different drugs are needed in different parts of the world. If you develop a fever, sweats and chills, a bad headache or other symptoms that could be attributed to malaria, get tested by a reliable doctor or laboratory as soon as possible. If this is not possible, if you do not trust the result or if the correct treatment is unavailable, self-treat within 8–12 hours of your symptoms start. In all cases, you should put yourself under the care of a trusted doctor or other health worker as soon as possible.

Rapid diagnostic tests have greatly improved the ease and speed of testing for malaria, but a high-quality malaria blood smear is still recommended. Falciparum malaria, which may cause cerebral malaria, can be life-threatening, and it is common in most of the malarial regions in tropical countries. So, if you are in doubt, treat yourself and visit a medical facility as soon as possible. Further examination is an urgent priority.

Malaria still kills more people than wars do in some parts of the world.

4. Treating infections, parasites and bites

Infections, parasites and bites can turn nasty, so proper treatment is important. This section will offer advice on what to do in case of an infection or bite and what medication to take. However, you should refrain from self-treatment unless it is impossible to reach a doctor and get medical advice.

Dengue fever

This is a mosquito-borne illness that can cause severe illness very rapidly. The Aedes mosquito spreads this severe flu-like illness and tends to bite during the day. Typical symptoms are high fever, severe headache, muscle and joint pain, and feeling seriously ill. If you experience these symptoms, see a doctor, get a blood test, rest, drink plenty of fluids and be patient. There is no cure, but expert health care can be life-saving if (rare) complications occur. Do not go back to work until your energy is restored! 

Since the symptoms are congruent with those of malaria, it is wise to get a malaria test when you go for a dengue test. But beware: it is possible to have a false negative on a malaria test if the parasite count in your blood is still low. In case of doubt, get re-tested for malaria the day after. Remember that while dengue fever will subside with rest and time, malaria will not disappear without medication and can get very serious if left untreated. Therefore, getting an extra test done is worthwhile to ensure you are not missing a malaria diagnosis hidden behind the dengue.

Dengue is continuing to spread worldwide, and its risk is becoming as great as or even greater than malaria in many areas, such as Southeast Asia and South America. There is also a haemorrhagic form of dengue, and it seems likely that some people develop a more serious infection in subsequent attacks.

Zika virus

The Zika virus is a mosquito-borne illness whose symptoms include fever, erythema (rash or redness of skin), conjunctivitis, headache and muscle pain. However, symptoms are often mild, and many people are infected without realising it. Sexual transmission has been confirmed in several cases. The Zika virus can pass from a pregnant woman to her foetus, and infection during pregnancy can cause a serious congenital disability of the brain called microcephaly and other severe brain defects, with lifelong effects on the physical and mental health of the child. Cases of Guillain-Barre syndrome (paralysis of muscles, including life-threatening paralysis of respiratory muscles) can also be caused, but much less frequently.

The Zika virus is spreading rapidly and is likely to occur in most countries where there are Aedes mosquitoes. However, at the time of writing, widespread occurrence beyond tropical areas of America has only occurred to a small degree. Men returning from affected areas should avoid unprotected sex with female partners of child-bearing potential for 28 days – and for six months if they have a probable or confirmed infection. Women who are pregnant or who may become pregnant should avoid areas where the infection is occurring. No vaccination or special treatment is currently available, which means that it is essential to avoid mosquitoes. You should also avoid any areas of standing water, however small (e.g. inside old car tyres), as this is where mosquitoes breed. Make sure your mission cleans up and dries out any such areas.

Information on Zika is changing continually, so consult the latest advice.

Viral haemorrhagic fevers

The Ebola outbreak in West Africa, which began in 2013, was explosive and dangerous. However, new cases are occurring with decreasing frequency at the time of writing.

Methods of minimising its spread, including the emergence of vaccines, are likely to decrease Ebola’s risk and reach.

Other viral haemorrhagic fevers, such as Lassa fever and Marburg virus disease, occur occasionally. There are often cases of Lassa in rural areas of West Africa. Most viral haemorrhagic fevers are spread by close contact with infectious cases, while some are spread by mosquitoes or ticks. Get specialist advice if you are deployed in areas where known outbreaks occur. Symptoms usually start with fever, headaches, muscle pain and conjunctival suffusion (eye redness). A slow intravenous infusion may partially treat Lassa of ribavirin. You should check for further information on the specific dangers, causes, and best prevention methods during an outbreak.

In some cultures, especially in West Africa, there is a custom of touching the dead during pre-burial preparations (for example, when washing the body) or as part of the funerary rituals. Be aware that dead bodies may still contain active viruses. HIV, for example, may survive in a dead human body for as long as a week; Ebola may also still be contagious after the death of the host. Therefore, be careful when attending funerals. If you must touch dead bodies, wear protection (e.g. gloves, mask) and disinfect yourself as soon as possible afterwards, including your clothes.

Pneumonia and respiratory infection

Pneumonia and respiratory infection are especially common during stress, tiredness and overcrowding, for example, during or after a prolonged or stressful mission when your immunity is low. Symptoms include coughing, shortness of breath, fever, pain when breathing deeply and blood sputum in severe cases. If you experience these symptoms, seek medical advice as soon as possible. Timely treatment with effective antibiotics usually shortens these illnesses. Remember that pneumonia’s symptoms can mimic those of malaria.

If you are deployed to a country where any severe episodes of flu or flu-like illness are known to occur in the area or a worldwide outbreak, follow official guidelines carefully. If you shower somewhere hot and the water in the pipe is stagnant, be careful not to inhale the water. It could cause life-threatening legionella pneumonia, whose symptoms can include high fever, cough and weakness. Mission members should take their own supply of antibiotics for emergencies, such as acute respiratory infections.

Skin and wound infections

Skin diseases are mostly related to poor hygiene, infected bites or eczema, or a variety of less common parasitic and other infections. Parasites can cause severe skin infections (e.g. scabies). If there is no medical service available, take a photo and send it to the medical facility responsible, describe the symptoms, and ask for advice.

A common skin complaint is sunburn. Avoid direct contact with the sun, especially between 10 am and 3 pm. Use sun lotion with a high sun protection factor – at least 30. If the skin is red, you can use some cooling cream such as calamine lotion. If there are blisters, you should contact a doctor or pharmacy.

Even small cuts, scrapes, bites and other wounds can quickly get infected in hot climates. Use an antiseptic cream or powder. Cellulitis – hot, red skin spreading outwards from an infection or upwards from the feet and toes – can develop extremely rapidly. Start a high-dose antibiotic at once, under medical supervision. Do not shower without flip-flops, as warm, damp environments such as showers may be breeding grounds for fungi.

Bites from dogs and other animals

Clean any bites carefully with soap and water. Get them looked at by a doctor or other trusted health worker. Bites often become infected, and you should start a course of antibiotics even if there is no infection. Usually, bites will not close surgically because of the risk of infection. You should regularly visit a medical facility, depending on the depth of the bite. Ensure you have been immunised against tetanus (a primary course of three injections with a booster every ten years). If you have not been vaccinated, get a tetanus shot without delay.

Bites from snakes, scorpions, spiders or other animals should be reported immediately to a doctor or medical facility. Take a photo or try to describe the animal, as you may need treatment. Do not waste time!

Rabies is a vaccine-preventable viral disease which occurs in more than 150 countries. Dogs are the source of up to 99% of all rabies transmissions to humans. Infection causes tens of thousands of deaths every year, mostly in Asia and Africa. Cleansing the wound immediately with soap and water can be life-saving.

Unless you are in a region known to be free of rabies, it is essential that you report to a competent health facility at once if you are bitten. Even if you have been fully immunised against rabies before deployment, you will still need two more vaccines. If you have not been immunised, you will need five post-exposure vaccines and probably also human rabies immunoglobulin, which can be hard to reach even in developed countries. Everyone deployed to a country where rabies is endemic should be immunised before their mission.

However, remember that rabies vaccination only buys you time – you must still get shots and get them rapidly after being bitten. If you know there are rabies-infected animals in your surroundings (symptoms in dogs include disorientation, staggering, seizures, and foaming at the mouth), ensure you know where to get vaccinated for rabies.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

These are very common among mission personnel and humanitarian workers for reasons that are usually obvious. The key rules are never to have unprotected sex (i.e. use condoms) and to avoid sex when alcohol has significantly blurred your decision-making. Also, report any signs such as abnormal discharge, sores or genital warts. If in doubt whether you may have become infected, get checked out at the end of your mission, as some STIs may cause no symptoms but can cause infertility and other problems. Include an HIV test.

 At the end of your mission

A post-mission medical checkup is crucial unless your deployment has been short or to a low-risk destination. If you have any unusual or persistent symptoms, including unexplained tiredness or weight loss, have these immediately checked out by a doctor.

Symptoms can start weeks, months and occasionally years after finishing a mission (e.g. parasites, malaria). One of the most common is bilharzia, frequently caught from swimming in sub-Saharan African lakes and rivers and showering or bathing in water that has not been treated or has been allowed to stand for at least 48 hours. A blood test is accurate, and the treatment is simple (praziquantel tablets), but many doctors unfamiliar with tropical diseases will not know about this. Inform your doctor that you travelled and worked abroad and consider visiting a specialist for tropical medicine if strange symptoms occur. The field of tropical diseases is very broad, not widely practised in Europe and needs specialist diagnosis and treatment. 

5. Dealing with climatic extremes

As altitude sickness, hypothermia, and heat stroke can be dangerous, this section will instruct you on how to cope with extreme climates and altitudes.

Too high

Beware of altitude sickness, which can set at any height above 2,000-3,000 metres. When climbing or travelling to heights above this, try to take a few days to get acclimatised. Above 3,000 metres, try to sleep no more than 300 metres higher than the night before. Maintain your fluid levels. If you become short of breath while at rest, develop a persistent cough, experience a pounding headache or feel drowsy, return to a lower altitude as quickly as possible.

Too cold

Hypothermia can quickly set in with any combination of cold weather, high elevation, strong wind and being wet. To prevent this, wear several layers of loose-fitting clothing with a waterproof outer layer and cover your head, neck and hands. Set up a ‘buddy system’ so individuals can look after one another. Signs of hypothermia include feeling intense cold, shivering, drowsiness or confusion. If this happens to you or your companion, warm up without delay by having warm sweet drinks, sharing warmth in a sleeping bag or having a bath with water up to 40 °C. Check for signs of frostbite (an aching or numbness, often in the hands or feet, with the skin feeling rock-hard and looking very pale or purplish). Do not drink alcohol.

Too hot

Working in high temperatures increases the risk of heat stroke or sunstroke. This is when your body’s cooling mechanism (including your ability to sweat) breaks down. In these situations, your body temperature escalates to 39 °C or above, you feel hot and dry, your pulse rate increases, and you may feel sick and confused. Get into a cool place at once, drink cold non-alcoholic beverages if you can, get sponged down, fanned or have cold water poured on your body to evaporate the heat. Get medical help, as this can be an emergency. 

6. Environmental risks and challenges

You must consider environmental risks to avoid secondary hazards and exposure to hazardous materials and ensure sustainable early recovery strategies. Three major fields of action need to be considered.

Secondary risks and hazards

Secondary hazards are the potential damage that, for example, infrastructure such as industrial facilities or tailing dams could have on the environment. By identifying and assessing these risks, further harm can be avoided or mitigated. The Flash Environmental Assessment Tool (FEAT), developed by the United Nations to identify acute environmental risks immediately following disasters, is useful for assessing risks and informing early environmental recovery strategies.

Hazardous materials

FEAT classifies hazardous compounds as gases, liquids or solids. These are linked to typical pathways of exposure (e.g. air, bodies of water, soil) and distinct impact types (e.g. human mortality, effects on life support systems including drinking water, fisheries and agriculture). In crises or emergencies, you may be exposed to hazardous materials (hazmat). Trained hazmat experts should handle such situations; however, if you find yourself faced with a potential hazmat incident, take the following actions:

• Stay away from fumes, smoke and vapour. Remain upwind, even if there is no smell.
• Be aware of changing weather conditions and wind directions. Note the wind speed, direction, precipitation type, temperature and cloud cover.
• Do not operate radios, mobile phones or other electronic devices within 500 metres of the hazard.
• Leave the area immediately.
• Notify local emergency officials or community leaders of the situation so they may cordon off the scene.

When exposed to hazmat, consider the following weather-related effects:

• On a warm day, chemical substances evaporate quicker than in cold temperatures.
• High winds will disperse gases, vapours and powders.
• Precipitation may be problematic if a weather-reactive substance is released. However, precipitation may be a benefit as it can slow down the dispersion of airborne materials and reduce the area of impact.

In any event, inform local and/or international authorities to get access to experts, further information and advice.

Environmental considerations in peace operations

The mission should be as environmentally friendly as possible to minimise negative impacts. You can find further information and advice in Chapter 4.

7. Mental health and stress management

Working in crisis management environments can expose you to stressful situations and conditions. You may realise that a situation your colleague judges to be extremely stressful is one you can handle easily or vice-versa. Different people react differently to stress triggers, and coping strategies vary from one person to another.

Experiencing stress during crisis management can have positive effects. It may help focus your attention, increase your concentration and mobilise the necessary energy to achieve your everyday goals.

However, failure to cope effectively with stress may cause a decrease in productivity, prove detrimental to your functioning and affect the work of your entire team. Early prevention can stop the stress reaction from escalating into a real problem.

This section will focus on three types of stress, namely cumulative stress, acute stress, and vicarious trauma. It will provide you with tips on how to deal with them and take advantage of the resources at hand to support your healing process. Furthermore, you will find a section on post-deployment stress in Chapter 7.

Cumulative stress

Cumulative stress builds up over time and, if not well-managed, can gradually lead you to perform less effectively. Some stress in missions is inevitable, but not addressing cumulative stress may lead to burnout.

What creates cumulative stress?

Everyone has different reasons for feeling stressed. Some can cope with stress better than others by consciously controlling their state of mind. The following is a non-exhaustive list of possible causes of cumulative stress:

• Problems with basic needs, e.g. housing discomforts, lack of privacy, food (lack of variety, poor quality, etc.), clean water shortages;
• Travel delays;
• Insufficient safety and security;
• Health hazards;
• Immobility, inactivity, lack of exercise;
• Problems at home, missing family and friends (homesickness);
• Witnessing violence or tragic events;
• Inability to make a difference, lack of progress, apathy among responders or survivors;
• Noisy or chaotic environment;
• Malfunctioning equipment;
• Insufficient or no rest or recreation periods (also see Chapter 5 on recreational activities);
• Unclear or constantly shifting tasks, unrealistic expectations (imposed by yourself or others);
• Media attention and coverage of security incidents close to your location;
• Non-recognition of work or hostility towards your efforts;
• Unsupportive or difficult colleagues or managers;
• Anxiety about the mission, your accomplishments, responsibilities or skills;
• Lack of resources or limited control of the situation;
• Permanent availability and constant demands from the HQ;
• Cultural and language barriers.

How to recognise cumulative stress

It is important to recognise indicators of cumulative stress. It may be helpful for individual team members to share information with their colleagues that will indicate when they are not handling their stress satisfactorily.

Possible indicators:

• Narrowing of attention, impaired judgement, loss of perspective;
• Disorientation, forgetfulness;
• Impatience, verbal aggression or being overly critical;
• Inappropriate, purposeless or even destructive behaviour;
• Anger;
• Sleep disorders;
• Susceptibility to viruses or psychosomatic complaints;
• Hyper-emotions, e.g. grief, elation, mood swings;
• Physical tension, headaches;
• Increased substance abuse;
• Eating problems, e.g. lack of appetite, overeating;
• Lack of energy, interest or enthusiasm;
• Withdrawal, depression or loss of sense of humour;
• Inability to perform;
• Questioning basic beliefs and values, or cynicism.

How to minimise cumulative stress

Experience has shown that pre-deployment training in building up resilience to stress, greater awareness of early-onset indicators and prompt action to establish coping mechanisms all have a positive effect on reducing cumulative stress and avoiding burnout. It is natural to experience cumulative stress during a crisis management operation, but it is a condition that should be identified and managed. Some of the actions below can help to reduce cumulative stress:

• Know your limitations, manage your expectations, accept the situation;
• Get sufficient rest, relaxation, sleep and exercise;
• Eat regularly, drink enough water;
• Change tasks and roles;
• Identify and act on the source of stress;
• Communicate clearly with colleagues and ask for explanations to avoid misunderstandings;
• Take time off regularly;
• Create personal space;
• Control substance abuse;
• Talk, laugh or cry with your colleagues;
• Have a spiritual practice, like prayer, meditation, progressive relaxation – depending on your preferences;
• Pamper yourself – read, sing, dance, write, listen to or play music, pursue a hobby, cook a meal;
• Participate in non-work related social activities;
• Seek access to supervision from outside, e.g. through virtual communication channels.

Acute traumatic stress

Acute or traumatic stress is a powerful type of stress brought on by sudden exposure to a traumatic event or a series of such experiences. It is generally described as a set of normal reactions to abnormal events, such as:

• Witnessing casualties and major destruction;
• Serious injury to yourself or injury/death of a relative, colleague or friend;
• Exposure to life-threatening natural or man-made disasters;
• Any other events that cause extreme physical or emotional harm.

It is important to remember that strong emotional, physiological, behavioural and psychological reactions occur immediately after a traumatic experience.

How to recognise acute stress?

Physical reactions:

• Nausea, gastrointestinal distress;
• Trembling, shaking, sweating, shivering;
• General weakness;
• Elevated heartbeat, rapid respiration, hyperventilation;
• Headache, stomach problems.

Cognitive reactions:

• Racing, circular thoughts;
• Confusion, dissociation;
• Intrusive images;
• Negative thoughts;
• Loss of perspective, lack of perception.

Behavioural reactions:

• Constantly talking about the event;
• Exaggerated, black humour;
• Inability to rest or let go;
• Sleep and appetite disturbances, substance abuse;
• Withdrawal;
• Irrational activities.

Emotional reactions:

• Rapidly shifting emotions;
• Shock or disbelief;
• Numbness, anxiety, fear;
• Exhilaration;
• Helplessness, feeling overwhelmed;
• Anger, sadness;
• Guilt, shame, hopelessness, grief;
• Decreased attention and difficulties in decision-making.

Spiritual reactions:

• Loss of trust;
• Questioning the meaning of life;
• Loss of purpose and hope;
• Changes in beliefs.

Psychological first aid

Psychological first aid (PFA) should be offered after any traumatic incident. Like medical first aid, PFA provides initial support until further help arrives (if needed). PFA may include:

• Ensuring a sense of safety;
• Helping people to contact family members;
• Providing food, shelter and other practical help;
• Offering comfort and reassurance;
• Listening;
• Providing information.

A leading aim is to help reduce emotional arousal, as this will reduce the likelihood that the person will develop post-traumatic stress symptoms later.

Steps towards recovery

Going through a potentially traumatic experience can often fundamentally challenge our sense of safety and meaning. We may feel helpless and out of control. We must take proactive steps to address these sensations as soon as we can:

• If possible, try to re-establish a routine;
• When not working, try to distract yourself (e.g. with books, films) – avoid dwelling on the experience;
• Try to connect with others and seek support from your family, friends, colleagues or other survivors of the same or similar events;
• Participate in memorials and organised events concerning the traumatic event;
• Challenge your sense of helplessness by reclaiming some control (e.g. take positive action, help others, seek creative solutions);
• Make it a priority to get enough rest and take care of yourself (“duty of self-care”)

Dealing with strong emotions

Allow yourself time and be aware that you may experience strong emotional reactions. Try some of the following:

• Do not rush the healing process;
• Try not to be judgemental about the feelings you have;
• Connect with people;
• Talk to someone you trust or who is trained or experienced in traumatic reactions;
• Practice relaxation techniques;
• Pamper yourself and try to get the essential sleep you need for recovery.

What you can do as a colleague:

• Spend time with your traumatised colleague, offer support and listen with understanding and a non-judgemental attitude;
• Respect their privacy, but encourage them to get enough exercise, rest and a nourishing diet;
• Help them to resume normal day-to-day life, encourage them to take up hobbies and social activities, be persistent but not pushy;
• If trauma survivors display anger or aggressive behaviour, do not take it personally – these behaviours are linked to acute stress reactions.

When to seek help for acute or traumatic stress

Try to seek support through your social networks (e.g. friends, family, colleagues) as much as possible during the aftermath of experiencing a traumatic event. If this support is not immediately available or you do not have access to these networks, try to find a specialist. As stated above, extreme emotional reactions to traumatic experiences are normal.

However, if you find your functioning is profoundly affected, or if your reactions are taking a long time to subside or are worsening, you should seek professional assistance. This especially applies if you display the symptoms listed below four to six weeks after the incident.

Intrusive symptoms:

• Recurrent and intrusive recollections of the event;
• Recurrent dreams of the event;
• Acting as if the event was recurring;
• Intense distress at exposure to cues that symbolise the event;
• Physiological reactivity to cues or reminders of the event.

Avoidance and emotional numbing symptoms:

• Avoiding thoughts, feelings, or conversations about the event;
• Avoiding activities, places or people associated with the event;
• Inability to recall important details surrounding the event;
• Diminished interest in formerly enjoyable and important activities of life;
• A feeling of detachment, estrangement, and alienation from other people;
• A restricted range of emotional experiences;
• A sense of a shortened future accompanied by a notable lack of preparation for the future.

Emotional arousal symptoms:

• Hypervigilance for danger;
• Exaggerated and distressing startle response;
• Sleep disturbances;
• Difficulty concentrating;
• Irritability or angry outbursts.

If these criteria are present and impair normal functioning, you should contact a professional through your insurance provider or other medical networks. You may be in danger of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a severe and disabling condition that can be alleviated with professional help.

Ask your seconding or contracting organisation if it can provide access to services to support you in dealing with stress or trauma. Be sure to research all available services and how to access them before your deployment.

If you feel like you can no longer remain in the mission because of the trauma that you have experienced, do not hesitate to take the necessary steps to end your contract. There is no shame in leaving a stressful and traumatic situation.

Vicarious trauma

Vicarious trauma, also known as secondary trauma, can affect anyone who is continually exposed to the suffering of others. Therefore, anyone who works in crisis environments is potentially vulnerable.

You are particularly at risk if:

• You care deeply about your work but tend to set unrealistic expectations;
• You have not processed previous traumatic experiences;
• You lack social support or find it difficult to talk about your feelings.

Common reactions to vicarious trauma

Vicarious trauma is a cumulative process that makes gradual changes over time to a person’s emotional, physical, and spiritual well-being. Common reactions include:

• Loss of a sense of meaning, purpose, and hope;
• Difficulty maintaining healthy work/life boundaries;
• Relationship problems;
• Cognitive confusion and disorientation;
• Unpredictable emotional shifts.

Coping with vicarious trauma

Because vicarious trauma is such a gradual process, there is no quick fix for recovering from it. However, helpful strategies for dealing with vicarious trauma are noted below:

• Take good care of yourself. Ensure that you get adequate sleep, nutrition, and moderate physical exercise.
• Take regular breaks. Create space to get away from your job both physically and mentally (e.g. reading books, engaging in hobbies, spending time with friends, taking short trips).
• Examine your limits. Do you need to change how much time you spend in crisis environments (temporarily or permanently)? Do you need to balance crisis work with other kinds of activity? It can be helpful to talk this over with a friend or counsellor.
• Explore your motives. Think about what inspires you and where you find a higher purpose. Look for ways to connect with yourself more deeply (e.g. meditation, journal writing).

Addiction to trauma

If people have suffered early trauma in their lives or are repeatedly exposed to acute stress in adulthood, it is possible to become addicted to the experience. Known as ‘repetition compulsion’, it refers to the need to persistently revisit disturbing experiences.

Clinical research suggests that this may represent an attempt to gain mastery over a previous trauma. It is also thought that the excitement of the risk acts as a distraction from feelings of loss and confusion that might otherwise prove overwhelming.

Common symptoms of trauma addiction

If you are in the grip of repetition compulsion, you may:

• Feel bored and numbed by ordinary life back home;
• Only feel engaged and alive in violent and unpredictable surroundings;
• Compulsively watch violent or disturbing films or listen to aggressive music;
• Engage in sexual promiscuity or other risky behaviour;
• Repetitively become involved in abusive relationships.

Responding to trauma addiction

In many ways, repetition compulsion needs to be treated like any other addiction. That may mean a period of abstinence to ‘detox’. It can be very helpful to take breaks from adrenalin-fuelled crisis environments to reflect on your experiences and talk through your reactions.

Addiction of any kind is a very isolating experience, which can usually only be fully resolved in relationships with others. If you are aware of difficult or traumatic experiences that you sense you have not come to terms with, it is important that you find someone to discuss this with.

8. Substance abuse

The elevated stress levels inherent in the daily work of civilian experts on missions can potentially serve as a catalyst for substance abuse. By substance abuse, we refer not only to instances of drug overdoses or drunkenness but rather to the intricate issue of intoxication and addiction.

While addiction can give rise to severe health complications, intoxication poses safety risks and often results in diminished productivity in the workplace and heightened absenteeism. Although each type of drug impacts an individual's mind and body in distinct ways, some overarching signs and symptoms warrant attention:

Physical indicators:

• The evident odour of alcohol;
• Bloodshot or bleary-eyed appearance;
• Manifest signs of intoxication (slurred speech, unsteady gait, confusion);
• Observable injection marks on arms (indicative of intravenous drug use);
• Tremors and excessive sweating of hands (associated with alcohol or sedative withdrawal);
• Presence of multiple bruises, especially if some are more recent than others;
• Noticeable weight loss and a gaunt overall appearance ;
• Accidents at work, at home or on the road.

Behavioural and emotional cues:

• Frequent mood swings throughout a single day, oscillating between drug-induced euphoria and delayed depression;
• Heightened irritability, nervousness, and argumentativeness;
• Strained relations with colleagues and management;
• Tendency to avoid interaction with supervisors;
• Inclination to assign blame to others.

Attendance patterns

• Frequent instances of absenteeism, especially following weekends or paydays;
• Frequent sick leave and unexplained, irregular absences;
• Poor punctuality.

Work performance

• Diminished quality and quantity of work output;
• Increasing the number of mistakes and errors in judgement;
• Loss of interest and enthusiasm for work;
• Inability to meet established deadlines.

How to address substance abuse

If you observe the aforementioned symptoms in your colleagues, it may indicate a struggle with alcohol or substance abuse. The most effective responses you can provide involve guidance, support, and access to treatment. Consider the following options:

• Talk to staff/team members about the situation to collectively formulate a realistic plan of action. Involve existing professional Human Resources and HQ support and seek consultation.
• In cases where the situation has escalated to a more critical level and is starting to affect work performance, discuss it with a supervisor or contact the designated individual responsible for confidential counselling services.
• Ensure that either you or the affected individual seeks medical advice. Address the matter with the utmost confidentiality.

9. First aid

Check, call, care!

Understanding and applying fundamental first aid principles is crucial and can save lives even when only basic equipment is available. It is imperative to recognise that first aid is a practical skill, and for it to be effective, it demands consistent practical training. 

We strongly advise attending a professional first aid course to ensure proficiency and recommend possessing a valid, recent first aid certificate. To refresh your first-aid skills, you may also consider easy-access online courses, such as those provided free of charge by the British Red Cross.

Remember, the primary goal of providing first aid is to preserve life, prevent the situation from worsening, and promote recovery. Always seek professional medical help as soon as possible. If in doubt about what to do, call for emergency assistance and follow the dispatcher's instructions.

Providing first aid as a non-medical person involves following some fundamental principles to ensure effective and safe assistance. Always remember the following principles:

• Assess the situation: Before rushing to provide aid, assess the scene for safety. Ensure it is safe for both you and the injured person. Identify potential hazards, and if the situation is not secure, wait for professional help.
• Protect yourself: Use personal protective equipment (if available) to protect yourself from potential risks, such as gloves or a face mask. Your safety comes first.
• Check responsiveness: Gently tap or shake the person and ask loudly, "Are you okay?" Check if the person responds, and if they do not, call for emergency assistance immediately.
• Call for help: Dial emergency services or instruct someone nearby to call for help. Provide clear information about the situation, the number of people involved and any specific hazards.
• Assess airway, breathing and circulation (ABC): Check the person's airway to ensure it's clear, assess their breathing, and check for a pulse. If any of these are compromised, begin CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) if trained to do so.
• Control Bleeding: If there is visible bleeding, use a clean cloth or bandage to apply direct pressure to the wound. Elevate the injured area if possible and maintain pressure until help arrives.
• Immobilise injuries: Avoid unnecessary movement of the injured person, especially if there is a suspected spine or neck injury. Immobilise the injured area with splints or other available materials.
• Provide comfort: Reassure the injured person and keep them calm. Offer comfort and support while waiting for professional help.
• Monitor and record vital signs: Continuously monitor the person's vital signs (pulse, breathing rate and consciousness level). If possible, keep a record of any changes or improvements.
• Do not provide medical treatment beyond your training: Stick to the basic first aid procedures you have been trained for. Avoid attempting interventions or procedures for which you are not qualified.

Be prepared!

Certainly, when providing first aid in a mission setting, the following specific considerations, particularly as they relate to organisational and individual preparedness, come into play:

• Mission-specific assessment: Understand the mission environment and assess potential dangers unique to the setting. Be mindful of any mission-related hazards and plan your approach accordingly.
• Communication protocols: Familiarise yourself with the communication protocols within the mission for reporting and responding to medical emergencies. Ensure that all staff members are aware of these protocols.
• Mission-specific first aid training: Attend first aid courses that incorporate mission-specific scenarios, which may include training on injuries commonly encountered in the mission area or addressing specific health risks.
• Mission medical resources: Familiarise yourself with available medical resources within the mission, such as on-site medical facilities, medical personnel and evacuation plans.
• Mission-specific first aid kits: Ensure that mission-specific first aid kits are available and stocked appropriately. Be familiar with the contents and their use.
• Mission-provided protective gear: Utilise any mission-provided personal protective equipment (PPE) to ensure your safety and minimise exposure to mission-related risks.
• Mission security: Before providing first aid, coordinate with mission security to ensure a secure environment for both you and the injured party.
• Mission emergency contacts: Familiarise yourself with mission-specific emergency contact information and procedures. Ensure that all staff members are aware of the appropriate channels to call for assistance.
• Local emergency services: Know how to contact local emergency services in the mission area and be prepared to provide clear and concise information about the situation.
• Cultural sensitivity: Be aware of and respect cultural considerations when providing assistance. Understand local customs and traditions to ensure effective communication and cooperation.

1. Cyber security

In the context of crisis management operations, cybersecurity is a significant priority as sensitive data is constantly being transmitted. If valuable mission data falls into the wrong hands, the consequences can be harmful. You can minimise the chances of cyberattacks through awareness and responsible use of data. As a mission member, it is important to consider what you are transmitting over public networks carefully, especially if compromising that information could affect your own or the mission’s safety.

The cyber domain pervades every aspect of modern life. The digital world and ‘real life’ are now so intertwined that they can no longer be considered separately, which has led to a shift from IT security to cybersecurity. While IT hygiene – such as choosing good passwords, avoiding careless interconnections of devices, or operating devices in safe environments – remains important, it is no longer sufficient.

There is no absolute security against cybercrime. Security is defined in terms of interdependent goals and trade-offs, for example anonymity versus authenticity. All security measures bear costs (e.g. financial, usability) which have impacts on how security should be addressed in practice:

• Security decisions cannot be made based on efficacy (Does it work?) alone, but must always be balanced by considering efficiency (How do benefit and cost compare?).
• Security is not a static, generic concept but tied to a well-defined scenario in terms of motivations (or goals) and capabilities – both on the defending and the attacking side.

Any cybersecurity measures should, ideally, result from a thorough, individual threat analysis. At the very least, you should ask the following questions.

What is the motivation of your adversary?

An attacker seeking to compromise arbitrary victims (e.g. to collect devices for a botnet for subsequent use) will attack in an undirected fashion. Whether or not an attacker invests effort into exploiting a specific vulnerability is likely to be an economic decision. Moving out of mainstream configurations and taking basic precautions (e.g. regularly updating your software) will likely reduce your exposure. If, however, an attacker has taken a specific interest in your affairs, he might go to great lengths to target exactly your vulnerabilities and take into account your specific preventive measures. He or she will also consider a multi-stage approach rather than a single attack.

What are the capabilities and knowledge of your adversary?

This can be considered on both strategic and technical levels. Does the attacker control the resources you rely on (hardware, software, infrastructure, environment, communication partners)? State actors are bound to have wider capacities than small-scale criminals.

What are your security goals?

What do you want to protect, which aspect needs protecting (e.g. privacy) and against whom? How are your safeguards interconnected? Does the compromising of one element give the adversary new capabilities? Can a secret be inferred by looking at other data items (including metadata) – in digital or real life?

Any such threat analysis must be custom-tailored to your needs. It may lead to conclusions conflicting with best practice checklists (e.g. if you determine that a relevant state actor exerts power over the software you would otherwise use as a safeguard against other attackers). In these cases, you must consider legal implications as an additional factor. However, be aware that any generic checklist will fail in the presence of capable and dedicated attackers. 

Practical advice

In terms of how to approach cybersecurity, do the following:

• Inform yourself about relevant national and institutional security authorities and ways to interact with them (to prevent and respond to security incidents). Note their point of contact (PoC) details and working hours.
• Review national and institutional regulations, recommendations and best practices. Ask for information about the current threat situation and assess how it relates to your specific situation. Discuss any doubts with your security PoCs.
• Make conscious choices about where to yield and retain control. Any automation (e.g. automatically opening inserted media or running embedded scripts in websites) represents a delegation of trust to external entities, which may or may not take your situation into account. Forcing yourself to manually enable processing on a case-by-case basis will increase your knowledge of what is happening.
• Segment domains wherever you can. If you use dedicated means to keep your work and private life apart or handle different classification levels, you will reduce the overall damage when being compromised. Be aware that any software that separates domains (e.g. virtualisation) is bound to contain bugs, so any separation cannot be considered impenetrable. Check whether your employer can provide you with a dedicated work infrastructure.
• Think before you act. When interacting with the digital world, consider not only the software or hardware you directly use but also consider context, i.e. that one program runs along other programs on your device, communication happens using a (probably insecure) communication infrastructure, and you are always surrounded by an environment.
• When in doubt or you distrust your Mission’s cybersecurity situation (for example, when receiving a suspicious e-mail), please contact your security POC immediately to inform them of your suspicions and ask for instructions.
• Do not consider any data as a stand-alone entity. Combining and interpreting fragmented data sets (‘big data’) is now commonplace. Even metadata (like a GPS stamp on a published photo or a network address associated with an instant messenger message) carries information that can be interpreted.

When handling data and IT, consider the following key points below.

Encryption

• Encrypt any data storage carried out of secure premises or left alone and communication via insecure networks.
• Support state-of-the-art encryption. Cyphers (encryption methods) can become obsolete, so take advice from your security PoCs.
• If possible, disable weak cypher suites. Many secure communication protocols comprise a cypher negotiation between endpoints and have their own vulnerabilities. If a bad cypher is chosen, communication can easily be compromised. Do not fully trust the communication channel if you cannot disable weak cypher suites.
• Choose strong passphrases. Passphrases are commonly used to protect encryption keys (similar to a padlock PIN for a key safe). The encryption key may comprise 256 random bits, but if the passphrase that protects it is a single word with eight letters, the latter will be attacked rather than the actual encryption key.

Passwords

The rules governing strong passwords have changed several times over recent decades by focusing on common mistakes. Guessing passwords is all about combinatorics and heuristics. Words reduce the combinatorial complexity and can be attacked using dictionaries. Given time, any password can be guessed, so changing passwords and using individual passwords for different systems makes sense. However, with an ever-increasing number of constantly changing passphrases, there is a dangerous tendency to write down what should remain a secret. Consequently, the latest advice is to create passphrases out of nonsensical but mnemonic (easy-to-remember) sentences of actual words with minor modifications. Again, you should consult regulations and reflect on your situation.

Backups

It is vital to ensure your data is always available through backups, especially if you suffer from a ransomware attack. Follow the advice below on backups:

• Make frequent backups of changes (incremental backups) and keep several previous backups in parallel (rotating backups), which will help to limit the impact of sudden data loss.
• Less frequently, create complete snapshots (duplication of entire storage repositories) of your devices (e.g. a system recovery backup).
• Periodically test whether your backups are working and whether you can reinstate the latest backup.
• Store copies in geographically separate locations.
• Be wary of cloud storage. The administrator of any infrastructure is always able to access data on his own devices. But if data is encrypted and decrypted on the cloud, the encryption keys are present (and therefore possibly accessible) on the cloud as well. Encryption is essential for all relevant data, but it is equally essential where encryption is taking place. If the software used for encryption is under the direct control of the cloud provider, that raises additional concerns.

Security incidents

When encountering a cybersecurity incident, attempt to limit the damage to others and facilitate forensics. Try and do the following:

• Immediately contact your security PoC to inform him/her and ask for instructions.
• Quarantine your affected devices – including those known to be affected or previously interconnected – unless instructed otherwise (e.g. to observe an attack in progress).
• Preserve the state of your devices for forensic purposes. If possible, do not change anything in their configuration until forensic investigations are over. If you have no choice but to reinstate the device as soon as possible, try to create a snapshot on a storage device specifically procured for this sole purpose.
• When reinstating a backup, consider how far back into the past you need to go in order to trust it.

2. At your residence and during recreational time

Daily life and work can significantly differ from your familiar home environment in mission settings. This section offers fundamental safety instructions and advice regarding your residence, workplace infrastructure, and conduct during recreational periods.

Residential Safety and Security

Choosing a residence requires careful consideration. Opt for a secure neighbourhood with alternative access routes, avoiding dead-end or narrow streets. Evaluate parking options within fenced or guarded areas. Apartments, especially above the second floor, offer enhanced security. Consider perimeter security, solid doors, window grilles, secure locks, alarm systems, fire safety measures, emergency exits, and safe rooms, if necessary.

Upon moving or starting work in a new environment, identify potential hazards, including exposed wiring, absent mosquito mesh, slippery areas, unmarked substances, and containers suitable for mosquito breeding. Verify the legitimacy of the property owner and ensure proper legal documentation for renting. Consult the security section of your mission during residence selection, especially in earthquake-prone regions, where a specialist engineer's input is advisable.

Recreational Time

Recreational activities are integral to mission life, aiding in stress management, preventing burnout, and sustaining mental resilience. Regular breaks contribute to overall well-being, decision-making abilities, and job performance in challenging situations. Maintaining a healthy work-life balance is crucial for sustained effectiveness in mission environments.

Rest and recreation involve breaks from work to relax, recharge, and engage in leisure activities. It plays a vital role in mental and physical well-being. Depending on what is available in your specific mission context, consider typical activities such as organized sports, fitness classes, cultural events, movie nights, hobby groups, and local outings. Base facilities may offer gyms, libraries, and recreational spaces.

Safety Tips for Recreational Activities:

• Familiarise yourself with the context and risks before trips, trusting responsible individuals, such as tour guides.
• Exercise caution at the seaside, being aware of dangerous conditions and using appropriate safety measures for water sports.
• Avoid running along slippery poolside.
• Refrain from extreme sports.
• Exercise mindfulness regarding alcohol and drugs, respecting legal and cultural norms.
• Be aware of travel risks (refer to the "On the road" section).
• Implement safety measures when out at night, avoiding solitary journeys in the dark and opting for trustworthy transportation.
• Be considerate of behaviour towards individuals of different genders, respecting cultural norms (refer to sections on gender, sexual exploitation, and culture).

3. Fire safety

Fire extinguishers

Make sure you are familiar with whatever types of fire extinguishers you are provided and how to use them. If possible, you should also have access to a fire blanket.

The five main types of fire extinguisher and the types of fire they can be used on are displayed in the diagram below.

Remember: Never put water onto boiling oil. It will explode!

Actions in the event of fire

If someone catches fire, you should:

• Stop, drop and roll them over;
• Cover them with a fire blanket, damp sheet or other material;
• Try to smother the fire.

In the event of a small fire in a building or vehicle:

• Use your fire extinguisher or fire blanket;
• Try to close the doors behind you to avoid the spread of smoke and at least temporarily limit the spread of fire across the building;
• Keep your escape route to your back – never let a fire get between you and your exit;
• If one extinguisher does not put the fire out, get out;
• If in doubt, get out;
• Call the local emergency services;
• Assemble at your designated assembly point.

In the event of a large fire in a building or vehicle:

• Keep yourself and others well back from the fire;
• Remember that cylinders and compressed gases can explode in a fire and have been known to travel more than 200 metres;
• Never re-enter a burning building.

Fire exits:

• Make sure you are familiar with your environment;
• Know your escape routes;
• Have an escape plan.

Fire safety:

• Nominate a fire warden to take charge in case of fire;
• Carry out routine fire safety walks if the building does not have a fire alarm;
• Check for fire dangers regularly;
• If you smell smoke, investigate and evacuate;
• If you smell gas, open all windows, ventilate and evacuate;
• Agree on an assembly point with your colleagues – a location everyone goes to in the event of an evacuation or emergency;
• Know how to call the local emergency services;
• Know your address or your location;
• If possible, place battery-operated smoke alarms on escape routes and in bedrooms or dormitories.

At night:

• Check for fire dangers before you go to sleep;
• Re-check your escape route.

Accidents involving hazardous substances

It may be worth mentioning the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning caused by poor combustion appliances, leaking stoves or the use of internal combustion engine-powered appliances. If possible, place a carbon monoxide detector in all the rooms with combustion appliances and keep the rooms well-ventilated. 

Protocol 1.2.3. regulates behaviour in closed spaces:

1. When you see an unconscious person in a building (confined space, limited ventilation or no ventilation at all), quickly assess room safety, approach the person and assist them with basic CPR procedures or relocate them outside to get fresh air.
2. If two people in the room are unconscious and show no signs of life, first check the safety of the room. If you do not see any reason for the condition of the persons (e.g. risk of electric shock), approach and assist them with basic CPR procedures. However, be conscious of the possibility of poisoning by hazardous substances!
3. If several persons are lying unconscious in a confined space for no apparent reason, it may be a case of gas poisoning (e.g. carbon monoxide or other hazardous substance). Call the appropriate services (fire brigade, health services, etc.) for help. Do not enter the room without the appropriate protective equipment.

4. On the road

Road safety

Even though you will find that many of the points below belong to common sense and are valid irrespective of whether you are on a mission or in your home country, it is paramount to be particularly mindful in mission environments as road accidents are more likely to harm you than any other incident. For this reason, you should always keep the advice below in mind. 

• Never drive after drinking alcohol or taking drugs.
• Never drive beyond your capabilities. When road conditions are unsafe, this becomes all the more important.
• Maintain a sensible speed, even if you have an urgent appointment.
• Always wear a safety belt in the car. When riding a motorbike, wear a proper crash helmet.
• Get a good night’s rest before any long journey. Take regular breaks, if possible, every two hours.
• When covering long distances, avoid driving alone and take turns driving.
• Adjust your driving to road conditions (see chapter on mine hazards).
• Avoid travelling in the dark. Ensure that your route planning allows you to reach the destination before nightfall.
• Ensure any vehicle you use is well maintained and regularly serviced.
• Select and train any drivers you use with care and thoroughness.
• Inform yourself about road safety issues before the trip (using reliable sources). When in doubt about route planning because of road safety issues, consult your respective mission safety and security team.
• Before taking a road trip, familiarise yourself with the appropriate behaviour in case of an accident.
• Keep a first aid kit, gloves and a torch with spare batteries in the vehicle.
• Always know the phone numbers of the local emergency services and the relevant mission personnel.
• Make sure your mobile communication devices are fully charged. The same goes for your extra power bank. Never forget alternative means to contact someone (phones, satellite phones, SMS, radio, etc.)
• Follow the movement control/safety and security protocols of your mission.

Checkpoints and roadblocks

Checkpoints and roadblocks are similar. Both are a manned position on the road designed to monitor and control movement in a particular area. Checkpoints can be operated by legitimate authorities as legal checkpoints (e.g. police or military) or by illegitimate individuals or groups as illegal roadblocks, often set up by local gangs to extort money from passing civilians. When you move into a new zone, you can expect to be stopped at these control points. As you gain more experience and credibility with the group manning the barrier, you may be allowed to pass unchecked. Never rely on this, however, and always be prepared to stop.

Some checkpoints are well constructed and established for long-term use with sandbagged bunkers, a tent or rest areas, and a clearly visible and raisable barrier across the road. They may well have mines placed across the road for added security. In other cases, you may simply encounter a tree or even a branch pulled across the road, with one or two men plying their new-found, lucrative trade as toll collectors.

How do you deal with checkpoints and roadblocks? 

First of all, stay calm and try to communicate prudently and confidently. Remember that communication not only happens through verbal but also non-verbal expression. Stress, unease and panic can show through body language, facial expression, gestures, and movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole. (also see chapter on stress management)

The following information and advice are valid for legal checkpoints. When approaching illegal checkpoints, consider the advice below, but don’t forget to always use your common sense. 

• Do not approach a checkpoint that appears out of place or hostile. Consider asking your local staff or drivers for their opinion.
• At night, dim your headlights well in advance of the checkpoint so as not to blind the personnel working there. Switch on your inside light so that those inside the vehicle can be seen not to pose a threat. Ensure that any light mounted on top or at the back of your vehicle is turned on to illuminate your flag or logo. (NB: Since in distinct settings deviating behaviour in terms of showing organisational affiliation might be adequate to ensure personal security, always obey your mission’s regulations concerning vehicle movement.)
• As you approach a checkpoint, inform your base, slow down, lower the volume of your radio speaker and make no transmissions. Using your communications equipment could raise suspicions.
• Turn off any music. Take your sunglasses off. Keep your hands visible.
• Follow any signs or instructions to pull over or stop.
• Be polite, friendly and confident. You should not talk too much, offer cigarettes, etc. Such actions might suggest that you are afraid and could be exploited by the roadblock personnel.
• Do not open any doors or windows until you have made sure that it is safe to do so.
• Show your ID card if requested. Explain in a friendly way, if asked, where you are going.
• Prepare a summary of your organisation’s work, but keep it short.
• In case they insist on checking your vehicle, let them do so.
• Do not be in a rush to continue your journey. Be aware that the roadblock personnel might be keen to talk or offer advice to you. You could also ask them for useful information on the route ahead or your eventual destination.
• Avoid temptation by ensuring there are no attractive items, such as electronic devices, cigarettes, etc., visible from the window. Avoid wearing expensive watches or jewellery.
• Pass through checkpoints one vehicle at a time, maintaining visibility of any other vehicles in your convoy.
• When you leave the checkpoint, contact your base (watchkeepers).

At illegal checkpoints run by free agents rather than clearly identifiable legitimate personnel, it might be worthwhile stopping before the block itself if you can. Just wait for a while and observe. Is other traffic passing through the roadblock? How are the occupants of the vehicles treated as they pass through? 

You could wait for an oncoming vehicle (i.e. one that has passed through the roadblock) and ask them for advice on whether it is safe to proceed yourself. You could ask your local staff or drivers for their opinion on whether it is safe to proceed. If it does not feel safe, turn back.

Ambush

An ambush is an attack by assailants in a concealed position. It is an extremely dangerous, life-threatening situation. Avoid travelling in areas where a threat of ambush exists. In most cases, ambushes are deliberate operations, carefully planned and coordinated. Take the following precautions to reduce the risk of being ambushed:

• Avoid travelling close to vehicles that might be targeted (e.g. food convoys).
• Avoid travelling at night.
• Avoid routines and predictable patterns of operation where possible.
• If travelling is necessary, try to travel in a convoy and listen to road safety information from credible sources (if available).
• Consider using an armoured vehicle where necessary and wear protective gear or have it available for use.

If you encounter a deliberate obstacle or a roadblock and you have time to stop in advance, do so and assess the situation. Withdraw if necessary or if in doubt. A professional ambush will typically be situated at a sharp bend in the road or just over the brow of a hill so that you have no warning. Keep your base (watchkeepers) informed of your movements.

High situational awareness is crucial. Many dangerous situations can be avoided by identifying threat indicators before the actual incident. Therefore, sharpen your senses and always be aware of your surroundings; stay alert for any unusual circumstances and/or behaviours (e.g. a typically crowded section is now deserted), especially in high-risk areas. Ask yourself whether what you are observing fits the scene/surroundings. Strive to identify possible escape routes by vehicle or on foot. Ask yourself whether you are crossing a likely terrain for an ambush.

How to react if caught in an ambush?

If you are caught in a deliberate ambush, you are in an extremely dangerous situation. Your options might be limited:

• Stay calm, think quickly and use your common sense.
• You might want to accelerate and race through the ambush site or reverse, if possible. But remember, reversing might be too slow to get away and racing through might not be an option if the road is blocked!
• Avoid doing anything that could exacerbate the situation.
• If you cannot get away, follow the instructions given by those who have ambushed you.
• If the situation allows, call for help and inform your mission headquarters of your location and the incident.

5. Individual protective gear

This chapter introduces standard equipment and how to use it. Keep in mind that more advanced protective equipment can vary from mission to mission and organisation to organisation, and the induction training on its use is mission-specific, considering every mission’s unique terrain and communication limitations. 

The flak jacket

If you receive a flak jacket, familiarise yourself with it before use. It provides low protection for the chest, back and neck against the effects of blasts, shrapnel and splinters of glass, wood, etc. It is not designed to stop a bullet. It is comfortable and light to wear and should be used with a helmet.

The ballistic jacket

Ballistic (bulletproof) jackets offer varying levels of protection. The best can give protection against all known rifle and pistol rounds up to 7.62 mm. They are expensive and only designed to protect certain parts of the body. Additional neck and groin protection options are available. They can come with a large front pocket for your ID cards and first aid pressure bandages. With high levels of protection comes weight (up to 12 kg). At first, you will find them very difficult to wear, but you will soon become accustomed to them. There are male and female versions. Ensure you have the correct version and size and are familiar with the protection level and proper usage. 

The ballistic jacket can save your life. Make sure that it is fully functional and protected from damage or theft. Use the ballistic jacket as follows:

• The back and front collar options, which can be opened and closed, give added protection to your neck and throat.
• Always check to make sure that the ballistic plates are in place. They can be easily removed. One plate is normally curved and should be placed in the front compartment of the jacket.
• The jacket and other safety items are very expensive. You will need to take care of them as best as you can. They are extremely attractive items for thieves.

The helmet

Helmets are designed to protect the most vulnerable part of the body from blasts and shrapnel. They are not normally intended to stop a direct hit from a bullet. Use the helmet as follows:

• The helmet is worn in high-risk areas with the flak and ballistic jackets.
• Always ensure that the neck strap is securely fastened. Otherwise, a jolt will send the helmet flying off your head when you need it most.
• The helmet takes time to put on and secure, so plan ahead if possible.
• Open the windows of your vehicle a little when wearing the helmet. It restricts your hearing, and you might not hear the warning sounds of danger with the windows shut.

Be aware! Unauthorised possession or carrying of any weapons is a not allowed for civilian personnel. Handling weapons by civilian crisis management personnel is dangerous, and it can irretrievably undermine the image of the mission, which applies whether you use a weapon, possess it, or pose with it.

Positions occupied by personnel with police or military backgrounds can require carrying weapons. To ensure this is the case for you, carefully check the requirements of the mission you are deployed to.

6. Mine hazards

When deployed on a crisis management mission, you may face mine hazards. Mines or minefields can be leftovers from an earlier conflict. Mines or improvised explosive devices (IEDs) are used, for example, to protect property, pose a threat, or even attack an enemy. This section provides basic information on mines, IEDs, unexploded ordnance (UXO), explosive remnants of war (ERW), as well as booby traps and offers basic advice on dealing with these threats. 

You must watch out for two types of mines: anti-personnel mines (APMs) and anti-vehicle mines (AVMs).

Anti-personnel mines

APMs are designed to cause injury to people rather than to equipment. They might be lain in conjunction with anti-vehicle mines or by themselves. APMs are grouped into different munition sorts: blast, fragmentation and small-shaped charge.

Most APMs will be triggered under pressure, but the device can activate one or more tripwires attached to fuzes. The lethal radius of these mines depends on the type and the amount of explosives. Some APMs have a lethal radius of about 50 m. Most APMs are coloured green or black.

Blast mines

Blast APMs were formerly made of metal or wood but are now often made of polymer. They are either cylindrical, with a diameter of about 7 cm to 16 cm, or rectangular, measuring around 10 cm x 20 cm in length and width and 5 cm to 10 cm in height. The mine explodes when the victim steps on the fuze, and the concentrated blast of the explosives causes death or serious injuries.

Fragmentation mines

Fragmentation APMs include stake mines, directional fragmentation mines and bounding fragmentation mines. Over the years, mines become rusty and will be hard to find. Stakes and trees can break, and vegetation can grow over tripwires. Therefore, the best advice is to avoid areas with a possible threat of mines.

Stake mines are fitted to wooden or metal stakes hammered into the ground until the mine is fixed at about 20 cm above the surface. The fuze will usually be triggered by pulling a tripwire made from very fine metal or nylon and is hard to see. The fragmentation shrapnel will blast in all directions over a large distance and lead to death or serious injuries.

Directional fragmentation mines, also called Claymore mines, use an electrical fuze triggered by the victim stepping on a piezoelectric sensor or a trigger-man closing an electrical circuit using a command wire. The fragments will be projected through an angle of about 60° and will cause death or serious injuries up to a range of about 50 m. These mines are often attached to a tree or tripod at a height of about 50 cm.

Bounding fragmentation mines are normally buried. The mine is integrated into a small tube like a mortar. The fuze can be triggered by stepping on it or with a tripwire. Once triggered, a small charge pushes the mine out of the tube. 

The mine explodes at a defined height, around 1 m, and the fragments spread out in 360°. The typical deadly radius will be about 25 m or more.

Shaped charge mines

APMs with a shaped charge are very small, generally buried and painted in dark colours. They have a diameter of about 5 cm and a length of 12 cm. The fuze is operated by the victim stepping on it. An APM with a shaped charge is not designed to kill the victim. A small amount of explosives fires a shaped charge through the shoe, the ankle into the knee. Heavy pain, amputation of the leg above the knee and long-term treatment are the results.

Anti-vehicle mines (AVMs)

AVMs, also called anti-tank mines, are designed to disable vehicles. They are typically laid in fairly large numbers to achieve their aim. In an active conflict zone, you can be reasonably sure that mines of this type will be kept under observation. They are valuable weapons and protect valuable routes or objectives.

Do not go too close to such mines. And, obviously, never touch them for any reason. The mines may remain in place in areas where fighting has ceased, though their guardians are long gone. Nevertheless, you should not yield to the temptation to interfere with them.

Some important features of AVMs are as follows:

• Much larger than APMs, with a diameter/length of up to 30 cm and a height of up to 11 cm;
• Square or round in shape;
• Made of plastic or metal;
• Coloured the same as APMs, i.e. dark, camouflaged;
• Detonated by the pressure of a vehicle passing over them (remember, your vehicle is heavy).

Occasionally, AVMs are detonated by a tilt rod sticking out from the top of the mine, which is sometimes attached to tripwires. Just as these mines are normally kept under observation, they are also further protected by APMs in the surrounding area – another good reason to keep away from them. Bad weather conditions, such as heavy rainfall, could flush the mines out of the (marked) dangerous areas. Furthermore, insurgents or other militant groups can use mines to close paths and roads. Therefore, it is important to drive only on paved roads and not leave them for any reason. 

IEDs/UXO/ERW

Improvised explosive devices (IEDs)

IEDs are essentially homemade, non-standard devices. They are usually fabricated from readily available raw materials. Most IEDs incorporate military, civilian or homemade explosives. CBRN (chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear) agents are also possible. IEDs are produced in different sizes and forms, from a ‘letter bomb’ up to heavy trucks with five tonnes of explosives – their high quality, serial production, technology transfer, and further development lead to serious hazards.

Unexploded ordnance (UXO)

UXO refers to all types of explosive ordnance (ammunition) that did not explode when used and, therefore, still poses a risk of detonation. This can include all types of explosive weapons, such as bombs, bullets, shells or grenades. All UXO should be treated with extreme caution: if ammunition has been fired, it can be very unstable and still pose a risk of detonation!

UXO includes unexploded submunitions and bomblets, for example, undetonated cluster bombs, warheads of artillery rockets and artillery rounds. These weapons can have a high failure rate of up to 50 % in vegetated and urban areas, leading to an immense amount of UXO. A submunition can be an APM, a HEAT bomblet or a small bomb with different fillers. The submunition comes in a variety of shapes, colours and dimensions. Particularly dangerous are APMs in the form of a butterfly or a dragon’s tooth. Children pick up these mines because they look like toys.

Explosive remnants of war (ERW)

ERW are all the artillery that remains after an armed conflict, which includes unexploded ordnance in abandoned stockpiles, military vehicles and facilities. In some cases, these areas are secured with mines and booby traps. Abandoned vehicles could be damaged by projectiles containing depleted uranium. This heavy metal is toxic and leads to serious diseases.

Dealing with mine/IED/UXO/ERW threats

Now that you know what mines are and what they look like, how should you deal with them?

• Contact the local Mine Action Centre or your mission’s security officer for information on mine threats in your specific mission area.
• Do not touch any mine/IED/UXO/ERW or unknown object – stay clear of it. If you did not put it down, never pick it up.
• Resist helping attacked people. Further IEDs directed at assisting passengers might be lying around (standard repertoire of terrorists) and need to be taken carefully into account.
• Do not use your radio, mobile phone or SATCOM close to a mine (within 100 metres) unless absolutely necessary. The radio frequency you are using might cause the mine to detonate. This applies to all such devices: booby traps, mines, IEDs and UXO.
• If you come across mines/IEDs/UXO/ERW, inform responsible organisations and local people of the mines’ locations.
• Always seek local advice if moving into a new area or one that has been the scene of recent fighting.
• You should not use a new route unless certain others have used it recently. Try not to be the first to use a road in the morning.
• Remember, mines, IEDs and booby traps can be attached to tripwires. Do not even attempt a closer look.
• If you are in the lead vehicle and spot mines, stop immediately and inform the following vehicle.
• Do not try to turn your vehicle around or leave the paved road. Do not get out of your vehicle. Try to drive backwards slowly along the same track you came along.
• Do not be tempted to move onto the verge of the road to bypass obvious mines, to get past some other obstacle, or even to allow another vehicle through. A natural reaction at home might be to pull over on a difficult or narrow road to let a fellow traveller get by. In mined areas, forget it! You should not be polite and pull onto the verge. The verges may contain mines. If necessary, reverse back to a wider area and let the other vehicle pass.
• If a road is obviously blocked by something (for example, a tree or a vehicle) in a likely mined area, do not be tempted to drive onto the verge or hard shoulder to get by. It could contain mines. Turn back.
• Avoid dangerous areas, such as old front-line positions, barricades, deserted houses in battle zones, attractive areas in deserted villages or towns, country tracks, gardens and cultivated areas (mines may lie in tempting orchards, vineyards or vegetable plots).
• Ensure you understand local mine-awareness signage and be alert to uncollected, dead livestock or uncultivated land, which may indicate the presence of mines.
• Make use of the 5/25m check in unsafe areas or after attacks. It refers to looking for anything suspicious within a five-metre radius if you are in a vehicle; if your vehicle stops, you should clear a 25 m perimeter before moving ahead.
• Depending on the location and context, electronic countermeasures, particularly ‘jammers’, can protect you from radio-controlled IEDs.
• Be on your guard against ‘cleared areas’. An area might be declared clear of mines, but you cannot be 100 % certain.

Remember, if you identify a mined area or are informed of one, spread the news. Record the information and mark it on your maps.

Actions in a minefield (MINED):

• Movement stops immediately.
• Inform and warn people around you. If you can, contact your base for help, indicating your location.
• Note the area. Examine the ground to ensure you are safe where you are. Look for tripwires/mines/fuzes.
• Evaluate the situation. Be prepared to take control.
• Do not move from your location. Wait for help.

When assisting a victim in a minefield, the rescue options are very limited:

• Stay calm and breathe deeply;
• Do NOT run to the victim;
• Do NOT try to rescue the victim in a suspected minefield or unsecured area;
• If possible, talk to the victim, calm them down, advise them not to move because help is on the way, advise them to self-administer first aid;
• Call for help and use the nine-liner MEDEVAC request if known;
• Wait for the rescue team to arrive.

Avoid booby traps!

A booby trap is an outwardly harmless object designed or adapted to kill or injure by exploding unexpectedly when a person disturbs or approaches it. A booby trap can be triggered when you perform a safe act with it (for example, opening a letter or a door or picking up an attractive article lying on the ground). The device is deliberately disguised as, or hidden inside, a harmless object.

Withdrawing troops may place booby traps in all sorts of places to inflict damage on their advancing adversaries. Booby traps may be left on paths, by wells, in houses, or just lying in the open and attached to an appealing object.

Do not explore deserted houses, towns or villages. You should not be tempted to snoop around or use empty houses to ‘answer the call of nature’. Most importantly, do not touch interesting objects lying innocently on the ground. Just leave them alone. 

After-explosion procedures

An explosion can have many causes. If you notice a blast in your immediate vicinity and don’t know the reason, it is mandatory to secure yourself immediately. Use the 5/25 m check to establish a safe environment. Then follow the five C’s:

1. CONFIRM: Clarify the situation from your safe position. Don’t move.
2. CLEAR: If you think your position is unsafe, increase your distance from the explosion using cover.
3. CALL appropriate authorities, namely the police or army. If known, use the 9-liner format.
4. CORDON the area by warning other people not to enter the vicinity of the explosion.
5. CONTROL the area until police or army and rescue teams reach the site.

Important:

!) Do NOT enter the vicinity of the explosion.
!) Do NOT touch any thrown objects like fragments of ammunition, IEDs or the target.
!) Take a mental note of what you see and inform the appropriate authorities.

Nine-line MEDEVAC request

Calling in a helicopter MEDEVAC during an emergency requires passing concise information rapidly by radio. NATO forces use a “9-liner” system, so called because of the nine lines of communication it includes:

Line 1: Location of the pick-up site 

Line 2: Radiofrequency & call sign 

Line 3: Number of patients by priority:

A  – Urgent (1hr)

B – Priority (4hr)

C – Routine (24hr)

Line 4: Special equipment required:

A – None

B – Hoist/winch

C – Extraction equipment

D – Ventilator

Line 5: Number of patients by type:

L – Litter

A – Ambulatory

E – Escort (women/children)

Line 6: Security at pick-up site (in peacetime – number of wounds, injuries, and illnesses) 

N – No enemy

B – Coalition/Civilian

C – Non-coalition security force

X – Armed escort required 

Line 7: Pick-up site marking:

A – Panel

B – Pyrotechnic signal

C – Smoke signal

D – None

E – Other

Line 8: Patient nationality and status:

A – Coalition forces

B – Coalition civilian

C – Non-coalition security force

D – Non-Coalition civilian

Line 9: NBC contamination (in peacetime – terrain description of pick-up site): 

N – Nuclear

B – Biological

C – Chemical

To initiate the MEDEVAC, you must communicate only the first five lines – you can pass on the remainder while the helicopter is in the air. Aim to speak for no more than 30 seconds and leave a pause between each line to allow the duty officer at the other end to note down the information. 9-liner formats vary – check the correct format used in your environment.

1. Radio

VHF radio

Very high frequency (VHF) radio waves travel in straight lines. Just imagine for a moment that you are looking from your vehicle to your office in the distance through a pair of binoculars. The radio waves from your set follow the same line of sight, which is why this kind of communication is known as line-of-sight (LOS) communication. If you can see your office, you can communicate with it. If a forest or mountain is in the way, you cannot see your office; likewise, the radio waves travelling in the line of sight cannot get through. Obstacles such as trees, forests, houses and pylons make it difficult for VHF radio waves to follow certain paths as they either absorb the waves completely or deflect them. If you want to improve communications, find your way to high ground and send your message from a point without such obstacles.

Distance is naturally an important factor. As your VHF waves are broadcast outward from the antenna, they spread out like ripples on a pond after you drop a stone into it. The further away the signal travels, the weaker it becomes. Some sets are more powerful than others, so getting to know your area and experimenting is crucial to understanding the distance over which you can communicate.

HF radio

High frequency (HF) radio is designed for longer-range communications and works by sending its signal skywards until it bounces off the electrically charged ionosphere and back to Earth. 

Unlike VHF sets, from which you can obtain better results through correct use, HF transmission and the clarity of your signal depend on several factors, most of which are usually out of your control. For example, natural phenomena such as sunspots, polar aurora and other solar activity can have a marked effect on HF radio signals.

The frequency assigned to you may work well at one time of the day and then be virtually useless at another. It may be better by day than by night, which is, again, generally out of your control. Sometimes you will be told to use different frequencies at different times of the day to overcome these problems. Usually, higher-level HF waves are better during the day, and lower-level waves work better at night. If you have a mechanism on your HF set with which to tune your antenna, always do so. Ask how to do this. When the antenna is not tuned, you cannot communicate because the transmitter is disabled, and reception is almost impossible. 

How to use VHF and HF radio

The following is an overview of radio communications etiquette that, when followed, will minimise radio time, make it more efficient and reduce misinterpretation of radio messages.

Preparing your radio set for operation

• Ask the responsible unit in your mission for an introduction to the devices used in your area of operation.
• Check the antenna and all cable connections, ensuring tight and proper connection of all components.
• Make sure that there is a power source and that it provides sufficient power. Ensure your radio set is properly connected to the power source.
• Connect the audio accessories and check the proper operation of function switches.
• Make sure you know which channels are being used for transmission.
• Turn on the radio using the power button or turning the volume dial.
• Regularly conduct radio checks to see if you are still in signal range.
• Tune in to the correct channel, and you are ready to go!

Transmitting

Before you start transmitting, familiarise yourself with the call signs of persons and locations of radio stations you regularly communicate with. In general, there are five parts to transmitting a radio message that should always be followed (see also the Annex for radio procedures):

1. Give the call sign of the station you are calling (this alerts the station that they are being called);
2. Say “This is…” and state you name;
3. Give your call sign;
4. Transmit your message;
5. End your message with “over”, and end the conversation with “out”.

Some tips to improve your radio procedure are outlined below.

• Think before you speak and know for whom your message is intended. Decide on a message before transmitting it, ensuring it is clear and brief. Stay off the air unless you are sure you can be of assistance.
• Before you transmit, make sure no one else is speaking.
• Do not reply to a transmission if you do not hear your call sign.
• Remember to divide your message into sensible phrases, make pauses and maintain a natural rhythm in your speech.
• Avoid excessive calling and unofficial transmissions. 
• Keep a distance of about 5 cm between the microphone and your lips, and hold the face of the microphone almost at a right angle to your face. Shield your microphone from background noise.
• When ready to transmit, press the transmission button and wait a second before speaking. When you have finished the transmission, wait a moment before releasing the button.
• Remember, as long as you are pressing the transmission button, no one else can transmit from their radio.
• Use standard pronunciation, emphasise vowels, avoid extremes of high pitch, do not use abbreviations, speak in a moderately strong voice and do not shout. Speak slowly, distinctly and clearly.
• Acknowledge receipt (“copy”, “check”, or “roger”). If you do not understand, ask for the message to be repeated (“say again”).
• Remember: think, press and speak – not the other way around.

English is the international radio language used to communicate in the mission environment. Even when you think you speak it properly, your accent and choice of words, in combination with background noise, may make it very difficult for others to understand you. To facilitate understanding, a phonetic alphabet has been developed, which helps the recipient of the message to quickly understand what you mean. When asked to spell a word, use the phonetic alphabet, whichis in the Annex along with a list of procedure words.

2. Mobile devices

Unlike communicating over a VHF radio network (where all your colleagues within range can hear what you are saying), using a mobile phone normally gives you the luxury of having a simple one-to-one conversation where you can speak and listen simultaneously. In addition to a phone conversation, your mobile phone allows you to be in touch with your colleagues through messages, email and social media at all times.

This might sound like the perfect communications deal. However, things are not always so bright and shiny in the field. Despite all its positive points, the use of a mobile device can present certain disadvantages:

• Costs in some regions can be high, especially for international calls;
• Coverage may be good in some areas, particularly in cities, but poor or non-existent in rural areas, which can limit your interaction with your colleagues and superiors;
• You may have to purchase a new SIM card or phone for use in some countries if your system is not compatible with local networks. 

In addition, there are several security-related aspects that you should take into account:

• Destroyed networks. In a disaster-hit or war-torn area, the mobile phone network may have been destroyed or damaged. In this case, mobile phone communications will be unavailable or at best unreliable.
• Jammed channels. In times of crisis, a mobile phone system can become overloaded with too many users, and it may prove impossible to make calls.
• Political manoeuvring. Given that the local authorities can control telecommunications, they might decide to turn them off.
• Insecure conversations. Local authorities can listen in to any phone conversation. As with all forms of telecommunications you are likely to use, mobile phone conversations should always be regarded as insecure.
• Theft. The devices themselves are attractive items for a thief.
• High tech or spying device. The various features of mobile devices (e.g. camera, storage, apps or location features) could get you into trouble. The mere presence of these built-in features could cause your intentions to be misunderstood or abused, as their presence could be deliberately used against you. Essentially, we are talking about potential spying gadgets.

Other mobile devices, such as tablets and laptops, fall into the same category. They are useful tools for obtaining, storing and spreading information and communicating with colleagues. However, they are vulnerable to unscrupulous thieves who may steal them or even download large amounts of information when you are not around. Ensure you lock your laptop away in a room or desk when you are not using it. If you use a USB stick to back up your hard disk, give it the same security attention as the hard disk. Use strong passwords to secure your mobile devices, hard drives and USB sticks (see Chapter 5 on cyber security).

3. Satellite communications (SATCOM)

SATCOM devices are simple to use. They work by bouncing signals off a satellite and back down to a ground receiver or relay station, which can then retransmit. The area on the ground where you can obtain good communications from your SATCOM is known as the ‘footprint’. Remember, just because a particular brand of SATCOM operated wonderfully on your last mission does not mean it will be ideal in another part of the world. The ‘footprint’ may be completely different. Take the advice of your communications experts when they are issuing your equipment. They know what will work and what you require. The most important feature of SATCOM is guaranteed long-range communication. 

Despite the positive aspects of using SATCOM, you should keep the following in mind:

• It is not always the cheapest option. VHF sets are still the most economical and useful option for short-range work.
• Channel overload is possible. With the increasing use of satellite phones in troubled regions, simultaneous communications can overload the capacity of the satellite channels. Therefore, satellite communications should not be considered a self-sufficient network but rather a supplement to HF and VHF networks.
• It makes you traceable (when you least want it!). Modern SATCOM sometimes incorporates an automatically transmitted GPS (Global Positioning System) signal. In other words, anyone monitoring your transmission will be able to establish your exact geographical position. Be aware that this capability could pose a security risk for you. The parties you deal with may accuse you of revealing details of their location. Where such sensitivities exist, the SATCOM might better be left back at your base.
• There is one transmitter and one receiver. Remember, with SATCOM, only point-to-point communication is possible – you cannot transmit to multiple receivers simultaneously.

1. Navigation aids

Maps

Maps are the most important navigation aid and should be studied carefully as a preliminary navigational tool. Doing so can answer many questions, such as the best route to take and which areas to avoid. There are various types of maps, from atlases to geographic, tourist, city and topographic maps. They enable the user to visualise the lie of the area around them, assist with a sense of direction and increase confidence.

Topographic maps are detailed graphic representations of features that appear on the Earth’s surface. A map’s legend (or key) lists the features shown on the map and their corresponding symbols. Topographic maps usually show a geographic graticule (latitude and longitude in degrees, minutes and seconds) and a coordinate grid (eastings and northings in metres) so that relative and absolute positions of mapped features can be determined, as well as major terrain features such as water bodies, vegetation, hill and mountain ranges, and speed of elevation. 

How to read a topographic map

The first step in reading a topographic map is to become familiar with the specific characteristics or marginal information of the map or maps used:

• What is the map scale? The scale indicates the size of features and distances portrayed on the map compared with real-life measurements.
• Which direction is north? The north point orientates the map to the real world. You have to align them, typically with the help of a compass.
• What symbols are on the map? To understand the map, you will need to understand the symbols. Scan the legend.
• Which coordinate system (or datum) is used on the map? This information will be in the text in the map margin. Some newer maps show GPS coordinates. Remember to set your GPS to the right or compatible system, and include a reference to the datum when quoting the coordinates.

Map scale

A map represents a given area on the ground. A map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between the distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the ground. Map scales can be shown using a scale bar.

Using a 1:250,000 scale map, for example, the first number of the scale (1) represents a core unit of distance on the map, while the second (250,000) represents that same distance on the ground. In this case, one centimetre on the map represents 250,000 centimetres, or 2.5 kilometres, on the ground.

The scale bar can be used to determine the distance between two points on the map. Scales are usually shown in increments of one, five or ten kilometres. Use a piece of string, a ruler or a strip of paper to measure the distance between two points on the map, then compare that measurement to the scale bar on the map to determine what distance the measurement represents. 

Direction and bearings

Maps usually include a north point diagram that shows the direction of true north, grid north and magnetic north. This diagram also shows the actual grid/magnetic angle for the centre of the map face.

• True north (TN) is the direction to the earth’s geographic North Pole.
• Grid north (GN) is the direction of the vertical grid lines (eastings) on a topographic map. The angular difference between GN and TN is known as grid convergence.
• Magnetic north (MN) is the direction from any point on the earth’s surface towards the earth’s north magnetic pole. The angular difference between MN and TN is known as magnetic declination. 

As GN is used in preference to TN for map reading purposes, it is prudent to know the difference between GN and MN, which is known as the grid/magnetic angle or magnetic variation. As the position of the north magnetic pole moves slightly from year to year, the grid/magnetic angle and magnetic declination will vary by a small amount each year. Magnetic variation can be important when using a map for accurate navigation, particularly if the map is several years old.

Directions can also be expressed as bearings. A bearing is the clockwise horizontal angle measured from north to a chosen direction. Bearings are usually shown in degrees and range from 0° (north) to 360° (also north). South is 180°, east is 90° and west is 270°. 

Map symbols (the legend)

Maps use symbols to represent features on the ground. These features include roads, tracks, rivers, lakes, vegetation, fences, buildings, power lines, administrative boundaries, etc. Colour plays an important part in symbols, and some international conventions apply to the use of colour. For example, blue for water features, black for culture and green for vegetation. While most symbols are easily recognised as the features they represent, they are all explained in the map’s legend.

Contour lines

Topographic maps show contour lines that join points of equal height and represent the relief in the terrain depicted. For example, if there are many contour lines close together, the terrain is steep. Contour lines that are far apart indicate land with gentle slopes.

Datums

Mapping and coordinate systems are based on a datum, which is a mathematical surface that best fits the shape of the earth. A geocentric datum is a datum that has its origin at the earth’s centre of mass. The advantage of the geocentric datum is that it is directly compatible with satellite-based navigation systems.

Adopting a geocentric datum allows for a single standard of collecting, storing and using geographic data, which ensures compatibility across various geographic systems at the local, regional, national and global levels.

Anyone using a map or a GPS receiver will need to know which datum is being used for the grid and the latitude and longitude coordinates.

2. Map coordinates

Map coordinates are usually shown in one of two ways: geographic or grid coordinates.

Geographic coordinates: latitude and longitude

You can find or express a location using the geographic coordinates of latitude (north or south – horizontal lines) and longitude (east or west – vertical lines). These are measured in degrees (°), minutes (’) and seconds (”). Each degree is divided into 60 minutes, and each minute is divided into 60 seconds. For example, the geographic coordinates for a position could be stated as 33°40’30”S, 153°10’40”E. 

Latitude is the angular expression of the distance north or south from the equator (0° latitude). The South Pole is at 90°S, and the North Pole is at 90°N. Longitude is the angular expression of the distance east or west of the imaginary line known as the Prime Meridian (0° longitude on all maps).

Latitude and longitude coordinates are at each corner of a map’s face. On some maps, short black lines along the edges of the map face indicate the minutes of latitude and longitude. When expressing coordinates, latitude is given first.

Grid coordinates: eastings and northings

Grid lines can also be used to find or express a location. Grid lines are the equally spaced vertical and horizontal intersecting lines superimposed over the entire map face. Each line is numbered at the edge of the map face.

Maps are typically printed, so the grid north points to the top of the sheet (when the print is the facing up). One set of grid lines runs north-south while the other set runs east-west. The position of a point on the map is described as its distance east from a north-south line and its distance north of an east-west line. For this reason, grid lines are also called:

• Eastings – the vertical lines running from top to bottom (north to south). They divide the map from west to east. Their values increase towards the east.
• Northings – the horizontal lines running from left to right (west to east). They divide the map from north to south. Their values increase towards the north.

The squares formed by intersecting eastings and northings are called grid squares. On 1:100,000 scale maps, the distance between adjacent lines represents 1,000 metres or 1 kilometre. Therefore, each grid square represents an area of 100 hectares or one square kilometre.

How to quote a grid reference for a particular point

A grid reference is used to describe a unique position on the face of the map. The degree of accuracy required will determine the method used to generate a grid reference. All methods follow a similar approach. A four-figure grid reference is used to identify which grid square contains a map feature. A six-figure grid reference will further specify the position to an accuracy of one-tenth of the grid interval. In a map’s margin, there is usually a section devoted to how grid references are quoted. The information needed to complete a grid reference can be found in this section of the margin.

3. Compass

The compass is a valuable aid to navigation, particularly when travelling at night or through dense vegetation where it is difficult to identify landmarks.

A compass works on the principle that the pivoting magnetised needle (or the north point of the swinging dial) always points to the north magnetic pole. As a result, a compass with graduations (degrees) marked on it can be used to measure the bearing of a chosen direction from magnetic north. Metal objects such as cars, fence posts, steel power poles and transmission lines can affect the accuracy of a compass reading. Stand clear of such objects when using a compass – at least one metre from metal fence posts and up to 20 metres from a car.

Always make sure to hold the compass level during use. Otherwise, the magnetic needle may jam in the casing.

Features of a compass

There are numerous types of compasses. The pivoted needle compass with an adjustable dial is the most useful. In addition to a north-pointing needle, such compasses often have a transparent base with a direction-of-travel arrow and orientating lines marked on the rotating dial for measuring grid bearings on a map.

Using the compass to reach a destination

To follow compass bearings to a chosen destination, either determine magnetic bearings from visible features along the route or obtain these bearings from another source before travelling.

To determine magnetic bearings:

• Select a visible feature along the route to be travelled and, holding the compass level, point the direction-of-travel arrow at the visible feature.
• Find the bearing of the visible feature by turning the compass dial until the ‘N’ aligns with the marked end of the needle. Read the bearing in degrees on the dial index.
  Keeping the needle aligned with the ‘N’, proceed in the direction indicated by the bearing at the index line.
• The bearing will help keep you on track when the feature is not visible. Repeat this procedure until the destination is reached.

When magnetic bearings are known:

• If given a bearing in degrees, the bearing is set at the index line by turning the dial. Hold the compass level with the direction-of-travel arrow pointing straight ahead.
  
• Turn the body until the red end of the needle is aligned with the ‘N’ on the dial. You are now facing the direction of travel.
  
• Pick a visible feature in line with the bearing and walk to it. Repeat the procedure until the destination is reached.
   

4. Global Positioning System (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide radio-navigation system operated by the U.S. Air Force, which is formed from a constellation of 31 satellites and their ground stations. GPS uses these satellites as reference points to calculate positions accurate to a matter of metres.

GPS receivers are generally hand-held devices that assist with navigation on the ground, at sea and in the air. The GPS receiver is only an aid to navigation and cannot be solely relied upon to navigate. It relies on the accuracy of the navigational data entered into the receiver.

Nowadays, almost every smartphone has a built-in GPS chip similar to those found in hand-held GPS receivers. GPS-enabled phones need a third application to exploit the functionality of the GPS chip. Similarly to hand-held devices, GPS applications running on smartphones and other mobile devices can visualise locations on digital maps, record waypoints and track points, and record locations as described below.

How GPS works

The basis of GPS is triangulation from satellites. In triangulation, a GPS receiver measures distance using the travel time of radio signals. A two-dimensional position is fixed using the signals from any three of these satellites, and a three-dimensional position is fixed using any four satellites. The larger the number of GPS satellites visible to the receiver, the more accurate the location reading.

What GPS can do

Some general functions of most GPS receivers include:

• Determining ground speed;
• Plotting current position;
• Storing the current position as a waypoint;
• Storing other positions as waypoints;
• Plotting routes travelled as tracks;
• Calculating a bearing between two positions;
• Determining an error left or right of the intended track;
• Determining a range or distance between two positions.

GPS navigation

Navigation with a GPS receiver is similar to navigation with a compass in that a map is used with both methods, and a clear understanding of the principles of map reading and navigation is essential. Similar techniques to those used with map and compass navigation are used with GPS navigation. The principles of planning the intended route, studying the map, developing navigation data sheets, etc., still exist when using GPS receivers (see below).

Using GPS with a map

GPS is based on the WGS84 datum (see explanation of datums above). By default, most receivers report geographic coordinate units of latitude and longitude in decimal degrees.

However, not all maps have a WGS84 datum. You should check which datum, map projection, and map units are used on the map. This information is normally printed in the map margin.

For the best match between the coordinates of the map and those of your GPS receiver, configure the GPS receiver to display coordinates (geographical or grid) on the same datum as the map being used. Most GPS receivers can display either geographic or grid coordinates on multiple national and regional datums. You should know how to set the correct datum in the receiver. Please consult the GPS receiver’s user guide for details. If the datum needed is not offered in the receiver, consult the relevant unit in your mission (e.g. GIS technician) for assistance.

It is recommended practice to check the GPS receiver against well-defined map features every time it is used. Visit a feature such as a road intersection, determine its position by GPS and compare this with coordinates calculated from a map. The larger the scale of this map, the better.

GPS performance and limitations

GPS receivers need to have a clear, uninterrupted view of the sky to enable communication with the satellite constellation (network). Some conditions that may interfere with the GPS signal include:

• Cloud cover;
• Vegetation;
• Operating inside a building;
• Operating inside a motor vehicle without an external GPS antenna;
• Operating in gorges, caves, mines and other underground or low-ground areas;
• GPS receivers can also be affected by electrical storms.

GPS receivers have a built-in compass and altimeter sensor. These two instruments need calibrating before setting off on a new field mission. This operation typically involves rotating the GPS around both its horizontal and vertical axes. To calibrate the compass, find the GPS settings and follow the instructions given by the manual.

Most commercial GPS receivers are accurate to approximately 50 metres horizontally and 70 metres vertically. In ideal conditions, accuracies of about 10 metres can be reached. As GPS receivers are powered by batteries, you should know the duration and condition of those batteries, particularly before heading into rural or remote areas. You should, of course, carry spare batteries, but as a backup to the GPS receiver, make sure you have a magnetic compass and map with you at all times.

Types of data that can be collected using GPS

Two basic types of data can be collected and stored in the memory of the GPS unit. These are waypoints (or points) and tracklogs (or tracks).

Waypoints (WPs) are records of a specific point on the ground that has been visited. Normally, a data set of latitude, longitude and elevation documents a WP. Tracklogs are records of a series of points collected automatically every few seconds by the GPS to record the path travelled by the GPS receiver during a field journey.

How to use GPS to collect data

Here are some suggestions for using GPS to collect data in various situations on missions:

• Road assessments: WPs can be recorded at damaged sections of roads, villages and settlements. Track logs can record the route taken.
• Village assessments: WPs can be recorded at road intersections and prominent buildings (e.g. police stations, schools or hospitals).
• Flood and damage surveys: GPS can be used to capture the extent of various types of damage, for example, a flood or an area of collapsed buildings.
• Photographs: the locations of photographs taken can be recorded, for example, when recording damage to specific structures or facilities.
• Aerial assessments: GPS units are flight-safe because they do not transmit; they only receive signals.

Remember that the GPS unit only records the WP numbers. A record of what each of these points represents must be made using attributes. The attributes can be recorded in the device, in a notebook or on a form designed for this purpose.

5. Route planning

Before travelling, divide your chosen route into legs. Each leg should end at an easily recognisable landmark. After that, produce a navigation data sheet for the entire route, which gives significant information for each leg of the route.

Orientating a map

Orientate the map before reading it. To do this, hold the map horizontally and rotate it until its direction and features correspond to what is on the ground. If you cannot identify the surrounding features, use the compass to orientate the map. To do this:

• Lay the map flat and place your compass so that the edge of the base lies along any grid north line and the direction-of-travel arrow is also pointing to grid north.
• Rotate the map and compass until the north point of the compass needle is east or west of the index line by the amount of the grid/magnetic angle shown in the map’s margin.

Once the map is orientated, you can identify prominent features in the landscape.

Finding your current position

Once you have set your GPS receiver to a datum corresponding to the datum on the map, you can use your GPS to determine the coordinates of your current position. Alternatively, once you have identified surrounding features on the ground and the map, use the following procedure to find your current position:

• Choose two visible features and find them on the map. Now point the direction-of-travel arrow towards one feature and rotate the compass dial until the red end of the needle points to the ‘N’ on the dial.
• Place the compass on the map with the edge of the base touching the feature and pivot it until the orientating arrow or lines align with the grid north lines. Draw a line from the feature along the side of the base across the map.
• Repeat this process with the second feature. The present location is where the two lines meet.

Setting a course

Once you have orientated your map and identified your current position, you can set your course. Do this by sighting or laying a straight line across the map (using the edge of the map card or a piece of string). It is also good practice to identify a distant visible feature on the line, such as a rocky outcrop, and proceed to that point, then identify another feature on the line, and so on, until the destination is reached.

When features are sparse, you can use a GPS receiver. First, determine the coordinates of the destination point from the map and enter them into the receiver, then walk in the approximate direction of the destination, letting the receiver indicate the right direction.

Alternatively, the map and compass can be used as follows:

• Before starting, place the compass on the map so that the edge of the base connects the present position (in this case, No. 5 Bore) to the destination (No. 11 Bore), and the direction-of-travel arrow is also pointing that way.
• Turn the compass dial until the orientating lines are parallel with the grid north lines on the map, and the orientating arrow also points to the grid north.
• Put the map aside. Hold the compass steady and level with the direction-of-travel arrow pointing straight ahead. Rotate until the red end of the needle is directly over the orientating arrow, pointing to ‘N’ on the dial. The direction-of-travel arrow now points to the destination (No. 11 Bore).
• Look up, align the direction-of-travel arrow with a feature and walk to it. Repeat this procedure until the destination is reached.

Maintaining direction using a compass

When moving through dense vegetation, you should continually check the compass. The best method of maintaining a given magnetic bearing is to select a prominent object (such as a tree or a boulder) on the bearing and move to it, then select another object on the bearing and move to that. Continue with this method until the destination is reached. If you cannot find a prominent object on the bearing, send another person forward about 100 metres, correct them onto the bearing and proceed to them. Again, repeat this procedure until the destination is reached.

Once a course commences, checking must be continuous:

• All features, such as hills and rivers, should be checked as they are reached and identified on the map. Note the direction of flow of all streams and rivers and check with the map.
• Tracks need to be identified but should always be regarded with suspicion. It is easy to place too much confidence in a track which may not be the one marked on the map.

Distance travelled

It is very important, particularly when moving through vegetation, to know the distance that you have covered. There are two basic methods for achieving this:

Pacing

Pacing is generally accepted as being the more reliable method.

• Distances can be measured by the number of paces you take.
• These paces can be translated into kilometres, depending on the type of terrain and the average length of pace.
• Experience has shown that over long distances, it is better to count right foot paces only rather than each pace.
• To make recording easier, use small pebbles or seeds and transfer these from one pocket to another at each hundred paces.
• For a 76 cm (30 inch) pace, 657 right foot paces will equal one kilometre.
• To calculate your pace length, measure a 100-metre flat distance and count the number of right foot paces you take to complete it.

Time

• Distance can also be calculated by the time spent walking in relation to the speed of walking in kilometres per hour.
• For the average person walking over fairly flat country, a 76 cm (30 inch) pace will result in a speed of about 5 kilometres per hour.
• Naismith’s rule, devised by a Scottish mountaineer in 1892, allows for 1 hour per 5 km (3.1 miles) forward plus 1 hour for every 600 m (2,000 ft) of ascent.

6. Spatial information sharing and open-source intelligence

A key challenge, as well as an opportunity for organisations involved in crisis management, is to make adequate resources available to integrate new information technologies into crisis management procedures (CMPs), for example, through training mission personnel in the application of geographical information systems (GIS) in crisis response and on the use of open-source intelligence tools.

In crisis situations, whether natural disasters or armed conflict, the fast acquisition and transfer of reliable information is crucial. GIS allows you to collect relevant real-time geographical data from GPS devices, satellite imagery and other telecommunication devices and share them through web- and app-based solutions. Such solutions speed up communications and strengthen coordination between many different players in a complex and constantly changing environment, which facilitates rapid and adequate humanitarian support to affected regions.

Many modern information technology tools have been developed lately, which allow trained users to make quick and reliable damage analyses from satellite imagery and to share real-time information. Since 2003, the UN Satellite Centre (UNOSAT) has provided satellite-derived analysis based on data acquisition and delivery to support disaster management and humanitarian response. UNOSAT’s rapid mapping unit can compare pre- and post-event satellite imagery of, for example, damage to infrastructure or dislocated populations. Teams on the ground can later verify those results. In 2004, UNOSAT developed a live map, compiling information from various sources and partners into one ‘common operational picture’. 

A mobile-friendly UN-ASIGN application, available to the general public, works in similarly by facilitating a near real-time sharing of information between research institutions, private enterprises and humanitarian organisations with assessment teams or response personnel on the ground and feeding this information to the live map.

A plethora of commercial and open-source tools and GIS software options exist depending on the purpose, way and type of data they collect, map and share. ArcGIS, an online, cloud-based mapping platform, is only one of them. 

Even though the advantages of using GIS for crisis emergency response are numerous, one needs to remain careful to ensure the data originates from reliable sources and put in place mechanisms to protect the obtained spatial data.

Before departing on the mission, inform yourself about the relevant open-source intelligence tools, GIS technologies and resources your organisation can make available to you in the field.

1. Four-wheel drive vehicles

When you are on a mission, you will often be required to drive around in a four-wheel drive (4WD) vehicle. Although you may already be used to driving one, you should know what makes a 4WD unique. In case you are out of practice or do not have much experience in driving a 4WD vehicle, arrange a couple of 4WD driving lessons before leaving on a mission. 

Four-wheel drive means that four wheels provide power for the vehicle; 4WD is often selectable, but in some cases, all wheels provide drive all the time (constant 4WD, e.g. Range Rover). In most cars, only two wheels provide power and the others ‘freewheel’. In the past, the driving wheels were usually the rear wheels, but now front-wheel drive is more common. Most 4WD vehicles have stayed with traditional rear-wheel drive in normal situations, with front-wheel drive also engaging when the driver selects 4WD. 4WDs are often fitted with freewheeling hubs on the front wheels to reduce wear, noise and fuel consumption.

Why do 4WD vehicles need special handling?

There are several important differences between a normal car and a 4WD vehicle. The 4WD is usually about the same weight as an ordinary vehicle but has a higher centre of gravity, which makes it less stable. It may have a shorter wheelbase and a larger turning circle. The tyre size and tread pattern may be more suitable for off-road conditions than sealed roads. The two driving axles and the transfer case allow for high or low ratio and four-wheel drive. All these differences make up a vehicle that requires special handling skills. Successful four-wheel driving takes practice and skill and comes with experience.

General principles of four-wheel driving

The following general principles apply to driving off-road or on a poor road in a 4WD vehicle:

• Observe, assess and plan. Get out and physically check the obstacle before committing yourself to crossing it.
• The first attempt at crossing an obstacle is usually the best, especially in muddy or slippery conditions.
• Select a suitable gear before attempting the obstacle. Changing gear in the middle of an obstacle may cause wheel spin and loss of traction.
• When in doubt, trust throttle control. In difficult conditions, allow the vehicle to inch along, finding its way purely with throttle control (i.e. engine revs at idle speed or just above idle speed, no clutch or brakes).
• Do not over-rev the engine. Use only the amount of engine torque needed for the job.
• Slow down. To overcome wheel spin, take your foot off the accelerator.
• When braking, avoid locking up the wheels. If the wheels skid, ease off the brakes until traction is regained.
• “After you!” When two or more vehicles are travelling in a convoy, cross an obstacle one at a time. 

2. Vehicle checklist

The following is a list of items that you need to take with you in your vehicle and keep an eye on at all times:

• Tyres (make sure they are in good condition and have sufficient air pressure, including the spare!);
• Oil, coolant, fuel (check fluid levels regularly; never allow your fuel tank to be less than half full);
• Tools (make sure they are all in place, including the wheel jack and wrench for wheel nuts);
• Spare fan belt, extra fuel in cans (if needed) and a spare, properly inflated tyre;
• Individual protective gear (if required), e.g. helmet, flak jacket;
• Drinking water;
• Spare/emergency food;
• First aid kit;
• Sleeping bag/blankets (always worth taking in cold climates or for first aid);
• Flashlight and spare batteries;
• Radio, map, compass, GPS;
• Vehicle logo/flag (if your organisation has one);
• Lights (functioning headlights, tail lights, brake lights, indicators and lights to illuminate your logo/flag);
• Documents required by organisations or local authorities, e.g. vehicle logs, registration and insurance papers.

3. Armoured vehicles

Armoured vehicles are usually of the 4WD variety. All vehicles can be protected with armour if required (e.g. the cabin of a convoy truck). There are many different levels of protection available. A higher degree of protection usually means a greater weight of your vehicle. The added weight resulting from these higher levels of protection (between 3.5 and 7.5 tonnes) requires special driving skills because of the handling peculiarities this creates. A ‘C1’ driving licence is needed to drive an armoured vehicle in Europe. Therefore, missions increasingly require you to hold a ‘C1’ rather than a standard ‘B’ driving licence as a basic mission requirement. Check if you need a ‘C1’ driving licence for your position before deployment (e.g. if you are a border monitor). If you do, practice sufficiently, as it takes time to get used to armoured vehicles.

Armour plating can provide good protection against rifle fire and the blast effect from shells, anti-personnel mines and, to some extent, other mines. However, just because you have an armoured vehicle available, do not treat it as a tank. It can and will protect you against less-powerful threats, but you should not expect it to protect you against everything. In other words, be sensible. If the risks are high, turn back. An armoured vehicle is not normally designed to withstand larger sniper bullets, anti-tank mines or a direct hit from an artillery or mortar round. Understand the level of protection which your vehicle gives you.

Armoured vehicles should be used for vital missions in high-risk areas and when entering an unknown but possibly high-risk area for the first time. They should normally be used in vehicle pairs for added security, especially in the event of a breakdown. If conditions warrant the use of armoured vehicles, then you must also wear your helmet and flak or ballistic jacket for added protection.

Likewise, if the situation calls for the use of protective equipment, you should ensure that a first aid kit is always carried in your vehicle and seek training in its use. Always carry two compression bandages with you. They are small, simple, easy-to-carry, purpose-built pads that can be quickly applied to wounds to stop bleeding and thus save lives. Ask your medical department or field nurse for them (you can also make them yourself).

Other forms of vehicle protection

Ballistic-protective blankets, or ‘mine blankets’, are designed as an economical way of providing some minimal protection to vehicles not equipped with the armour described above. These blankets – made from the same type of material used for ballistic jackets – are laid on the floor of the vehicle. They are quite heavy (almost six kilos per square metre). The blankets augment the protection offered by the vehicle’s floor against shrapnel from grenades, exploding ordnance or anti-personnel mines. However, you should not let these passive protection aids give you a false sense of security. They will not protect you or your vehicle against anti-vehicle mines.

Sandbags can be laid on the floors of vehicles to provide added protection against mine threats. They are effective against blast and shrapnel from anti-personnel mines but should only be expected to reduce the blast effect of anti-vehicle mines. In other words, do not expect full protection. However, sandbags add to the vehicle’s weight and reduce its stability.

4. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)

As the development and use of new technologies expand worldwide, the importance of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has also increased significantly in recent years. While some argue that UAVs will become a common tool in future crisis management operations, the debate around UAVs has historically tended to focus on moral issues and the use of drones for military strikes. Very recently, the debate was broadened by the issues concerning using artificial intelligence (AI). 

Today’s use of UAVs is much broader, and it includes innovative, economic and professional ways of constantly investigating what is happening on the ground, assisting with logistical purposes and ensuring the safety and protection of civilians, which can be valuable in diverse and dangerous contexts such as natural disasters, armed conflicts or fragile states. So far, UAVs or drones have been used in different conflict environments, for example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Mali, and they are increasingly becoming a common peacekeeping tool in UN, EU and NATO missions and operations that can share the collected data with relevant humanitarian agencies as well.

In 2014, the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) issued a policy paper titled “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Humanitarian Response”. Even though the report focused on potential uses of UAVs in humanitarian response and provided guidelines on using the UAV capacities by humanitarians and peacekeepers in humanitarian contexts, it did not cover the legal and ethical frameworks on the use of armed UAVs, although it pointed out the ongoing debate on the issue.

There is a need for a common legal framework, policies and standards on the humanitarian use of UAVs. In practice, ad hoc solutions with local authorities are often arranged. However, they are short-term and lack transparency, clear policies, standards or guidelines. Information about the timing of flights, purpose, and type of data being collected should always be communicated to the public, though this is rarely the case.

Further contentious issues around the use of UAVs are the collection, selection, use and transfer of data, assignment and responsibility of tasks, logistical problems and the ambivalent impact the use of UAVs may have on ongoing processes on the ground. In recent years, the democratisation of UAVs, the technology needed for its use, and the proliferation of AI technologies and content have exacerbated these issues. In 2020, the OCHA report “Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applied to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and its Impact on Humanitarian Action” explored the link between AI and UAVs and its future potential.

Peacekeepers should keep in mind that UAVs in peacekeeping missions and operations help improve situational awareness and protect civilians, as well as render the missions more efficient and effective.

List of abbreviations

1. Handover

The handover process aims to provide your successor, or anyone else taking over your role and responsibilities, with crucial knowledge and information regarding your position and the responsibilities that come with it. An effective handover warns your successors of likely pitfalls and dangers and offers them all the knowledge and contacts they need to continue your successful work in the mission.

It is important that you finalise a handover report before your departure and share it with both your successor and your supervisor promptly, allowing for a debriefing meeting during which your successor and supervisor can ask any open questions. Ideally, there should be a period of overlap with your successor so that you can also introduce them to external partners and interlocutors.

A sound handover process will include:

• A written handover file or handover notes/report (this should be prepared well in advance before you leave the mission so that any open questions may be addressed and clarifications sought);
• A handover meeting between outgoing and incoming staff (your predecessor should have received your handover note before the meeting and had ample time to study it in detail);
• Meetings with relevant contacts to introduce your successor (as the handover meeting describes above, this does not necessarily have to take place in person; where necessary or applicable, make use of video-teleconferencing technology).

For a successful handover note/report, put yourself in the position of your successor: what would you want or need to know? 

You should have received a handover note (and ideally had a handover meeting) from your predecessor when first taking up your post at the mission. Think about the information and guidance you received that was useful. What was missing? Are there any other things your predecessor could have done to facilitate your arrival into your new position? What have you learned during the assignment that your successor should either replicate or avoid?

Thinking about these questions can be useful in drafting your handover report as they encourage you to include reflections and lessons that you have learned during time with the mission and can help your successor avoid any pitfalls or challenges that you have encountered. It is nevertheless important that you make a clear distinction between factual information and your observations (and opinions and recommendations) in the report. 

As the bare minimum, the report should:

• Give an overview of your responsibilities, tasks and duties;
• Include a detailed and comprehensive overview of key ongoing activities and matters that will require immediate follow-up by your successor;
• Include contact details and responsibilities of key partners, an overview of critical issues/challenges/priorities;
• Describe any relevant background information or context regarding specific responsibilities or duties;
• Describe general or specific good practices and the benefits they brought, thus explaining why they were good practices;
• Outline general or action-specific challenges that you encountered, as well as attempted solutions and results, including lessons learned if applicable;
• Provide links or access to past records and crucial documents for open actions;
• General or specific recommendations for your successor (these should ideally be actionable).

2. Mission debrief

A mission debrief will take place with specified staff to enable personnel to discuss their involvement during the deployment and to draw out any lessons for the organisation to enrich institutional memory. The following points should be covered:

• Pre-departure;
• Arrival in country and orientation;
• Mission activities;
• Relations with other organisations and entities;
• Organisational and administrative issues;
• Equipment;
• Other issues and comments.

1.  Medical checkup

You should seek medical consultation and treatment promptly if you have signs of any illness or injury following deployment. Of particular concern are persistent fever, coughs, or abdominal upsets with diarrhoea, as these may be due to a disease contracted during deployment.

Many tropical illnesses do not exhibit symptoms for months after being contracted or may be confused with the exhaustion and stress of the move. It is advisable to consult a doctor with experience in tropical medicine to rule out tropical diseases.

If you had any sexual contact during your deployment or if you lived in an area strongly affected by HIV/AIDS, you should get tested for HIV/AIDS and venereal disease. HIV tests may not be positive until about three weeks after exposure to the virus. If signs of stress persist after returning home from deployment, you should consult a professional mental healthcare provider.

Medication

You should continue to take medication according to the regime established by the manufacturer even after departing from the deployment location. This information may be found in the packaging of the medication and applies especially to anti-malarial drugs.

2.  Reintegration: work and family

Reintegration with family and former colleagues can turn out to be difficult. After coming home from your deployment, you may want to talk about your experiences, while others do not want to listen. Equally, it may be difficult if you do not want to talk about your experience when others keep asking. Understanding what sorts of reactions to expect from yourself and your family and friends when you return home is important in making reintegration less stressful.

Prepare yourself for a range of emotional reactions, such as excitement, disorganisation, disorientation, resentment, and frustration. Things may not be as easy-going as you had imagined. Some things may have changed while you were away, and your attitude and priorities may have changed. You may also miss the excitement of the mission for a while.

Reverse culture shock

A reverse culture shock is classically experienced as a period of depression or apathy after the initial excitement of returning home. This stage can be very challenging, as feelings of isolation and confusion are common. Reverse culture shock can last several months and is often not well understood. The lack of tolerance and patience displayed at home can make you feel displaced or misunderstood and could reinforce feelings of depression that you may be experiencing. Reverse culture shock is likely to impact friendship and family relations. This particularly applies to partnerships – where difficulties in re-establishing confidence, trust and intimacy may occur – and to children who, depending on their ages, may react in unexpected ways.

Factors contributing to reverse culture shock

There are many reasons why reverse culture shocks occur. The major ones are outlined below:

• The reality of home differs from the home you remember. Over the course of your assignment, you may have created an idealised or romanticised home. It is easy to forget or minimise the issues that were once sources of stress in your everyday life.
• Things change. Change has occurred to everyone and everything. Learning about these changes and adjusting to them can be very stressful.
• You will also have changed. You may have adopted different values and find it hard that people do not seem interested in the matters which concern you (such as caring about world issues).
• People may not react to you or your experiences in the way you expected. Many returnees find it difficult to connect with people and society in the ways they used to or may be frustrated by people’s limited attention span for their experiences.
• As with every aspect of the reverse culture shock, how you overcome the challenges you face will be highly personalised. However, simply being aware that reverse culture shock exists can already ease the process to some extent.

Strategies for dealing with reverse culture shock

Some possible strategies for dealing with reverse culture shock are outlined below:

• Start mentally preparing for the adjustment process before ending your assignment.
• Ongoing reflection is useful in terms of clarifying your thoughts and feelings.
• Take your time when coming home, both physically and mentally. Go easy on yourself and avoid setting deadlines for major life decisions.
• Cultivate good listening practices. One of the best ways to ensure that you have an audience for your stories is to show that you care about their stories. Being a good listener will reinforce mutually respectful and beneficial relationships.
• Learn about what has changed for family members and friends in terms of politics, the job market and so on. Try to adapt to new routines and situations.
• Renegotiate your roles and responsibilities at work and home. The workload can be shared in new ways.
• Seek and engage in support networks. Many people find that the biggest challenge of returning home is finding like-minded people with whom they can share their experiences. To overcome this, you may want to maintain contact with colleagues or find other outlets that attract people of a similar mindset.
• Find ways to incorporate your new interests and cross-cultural skills into your life at home.

3. Post-deployment stress

Be aware that you may experience post-deployment stress after returning home. You may suffer repercussions or delayed after-effects, particularly if you coped successfully during the actual crisis. Typical reactions may be similar to those encountered during the mission.

Symptoms of post-deployment stress

Some symptoms of post-mission stress include:

• Sleep disturbance;
• Restlessness and anxiety;
• Re-experiencing events;
• Feelings of emotional emptiness;
• Irritability;
• Self-reproach and feelings of guilt;
• Aggression and hatred;
• Problems concentrating;
• Physical complaints.

Strategies for dealing with post-mission stress

Some strategies for dealing with post-mission stress are as follows:

• Be patient and make time for recovery and adjusting to the new circumstances. It takes time to adjust to your new environment both physically and mentally. Following stressful experiences, it is natural to require more than your usual rest and sleep, which may be difficult because you have been away from family and loved ones who will also need attention. Recognise that you may need more time alone than usual to process your experiences and impressions, as well as to adapt to daily life at home.
• Try to look after your body. As well as getting adequate rest, it is helpful to exercise. Avoid using excessive alcohol or drugs to cope with how you are feeling, as it tends to make things worse.
• Communicate your experiences. Talk about your experiences, but keep in mind that others may not share the same interest in your mission experience or may lose interest sooner than expected. Expressing your feelings and experiences through other channels, such as the arts or cultural activities (e.g. writing, painting, dancing), may also be helpful.
• Seek help if necessary. Although it is natural to experience post-deployment stress, you should seek help in the recovery process if necessary. If post-mission stress symptoms last longer than thirty days or become more intense, it is advisable to seek assistance from a trained professional. It is not uncommon to develop depression after the mission, but it can be effectively treated.

Bibliography

This handbook has made use of the following publications – either literally or indirectly. Where appropriate, the wording has been adjusted to suit the subject of this book.

CHAPTER 1

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• United Nations Security Council. (2014, April 28). Resolution 2151 (2014). [PDF file]. Retrieved from http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/2151  
• United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights 
• United Nations. (2012, October 25). A/RES/66/290: Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 10 September 2012. [PDF file].  Retrieved from https://www.un.org/humansecurity/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/N1147622.pdf 
• United Nations. (n.d.). 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Retrieved from https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda 
• United Nations. (n.d.). Land and natural resources in conflict. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/land-natural-resources-conflict/ 

CHAPTER 3

• Roberts, D. L. (2005). Staying alive: Safety and security guidelines for humanitarian volunteers in conflict areas (Revised and updated ed.). International Committee of the Red Cross. [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0717.pdf 
• United Nations Office for Humanitarian Affairs. (2018). United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) Field Handbook (7th edition) 

CHAPTER 4

• Alves de Souza Junior, R. (2015). The use of the language assistant in UN peace missions – Benefits and risks. The RUSI Journal, 160, 1–21
• Greening the Blue. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.greeningtheblue.org/ 
• Rehrl, J. (Ed.). (2021). Handbook on CSDP: The Common Security and Defence Policy of the European Union, Volume I (4th ed.)
• Sheehan, M. A. (2003). Medical Guidelines for Peacekeeping Operations: Waste Management. New York: United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Office of Mission Support, Medical Support Unit.
• The Sphere Project. (n.d.). Solid waste management standard 1: Collection and disposal. Retrieved from http://www.spherehandbook.org/en/solid-waste-management-standard-1-collection-and-disposal/ 
• Transparency International (UK), Defence and Security Programme. (2010). UN Standards of Conduct: Code of Conduct. Retrieved from https://ti-defence.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/1106_CodesofConduct.pdf  
• United Nations Peacekeeping Resource Hub. (n.d.). Module 3: Individual Peacekeeping Personnel. Retrieved from https://peacekeepingresourcehub.un.org/en/training/pre-deployment/cptm/module3 

CHAPTER 5

• Bickley, S. (2010). Safety first: A safety and security handbook for aid workers (2nd rev. ed.). Save the Children UK. [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/0645-bickley-2010-safety-first-a-safety-and-security-handbook-for-aid-workers.pdf/ 
• CARE International. (2023, May 7). CARE Emergency Toolkit. CARE Emergency Toolkit. Retrieved from https://www.careemergencytoolkit.org/  
• Forastieri, V. (Ed.). (2012). SOLVE – Integrating Health Promotion into Work Place OSH Policies: Participant’s Workbook. Geneva: International Labour Office. Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---safework/documents/instructionalmaterial/wcms_178396.pdf  
• International Association of Professionals in Humanitarian Assistance and Protection. (n.d.). Staff Safety and Security. PHAP. Retrieved from https://phap.org/theme-staff-safety 
• Lankester, T., & Snelling, M. (n.d.). Clinical Director/Psychodynamic Counsellor, InterHealth Worldwide, London, Nairobi. Retrieved from www.interhealthworldwide.org 
• Mauer, T. (2011). Cyber norm emergence at the United Nations: An analysis of the activities at the UN regarding cyber-security. Cambridge: Harvard Kennedy School, Belfast Centre for Science and International Affairs. Retrieved from http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/maurer-cyber-norm-dp-2011-11-final.pdf 
• Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator. (1995). Residential Security Guidelines. In United Nations Security Operations Manual: Operational Instructions and Guidelines for Use by Officials Involved in Security Management. Retrieved from http://europeandcis.undp.org/uploads/public1/files/OM%20Workshop%202008/Security%20Operations%20Manual%201995.pdf  
• Peace Operations Training Institute. (2014). Mine Action and Explosive Hazard Management: Humanitarian Impact, Technical Aspects, and Global Initiatives. Retrieved from http://cdn.peaceopstraining.org/course_promos/mine_action/mahtg_english.pdf  
• Roberts, D. L. (2005). Staying alive: Safety and security guidelines for humanitarian volunteers in conflict areas (Revised and updated ed.). International Committee of the Red Cross. Retrieved from https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0717.pdf 
• The Headington Institute. (n.d.). CE Acute Stress Reactions, Continuing Education Series. Retrieved from http://www.headington-institute.org/files/understanding-and-coping-with-traumatic-stress_module-1-copy_82697.pdf  
• United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS). (2015). Landmines, Explosive Remnants of War and IED Safety Handbook. Retrieved from http://www.mineaction.org/sites/default/files/publications/Handbook_English.pdf  
• United Nations Office for Humanitarian Affairs. (2018). United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) Field Handbook (7th edition)
• Van der Kolk, B. (1989). The compulsion to repeat the trauma: Re-enactment, revictimization and masochism. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12(2), 389-411 

CHAPTER 6

• Australian Government, Geoscience Australia. (2005). Map Reading Guide: How to use Topographic Maps. Canberra: Geoscience Australia. Retrieved from http://www.ga.gov.au/image_cache/GA7194.pdf 
• Base Camp Connect. (2021, December 14). HF Communications are making a comeback, and here’s why you need to get in on it!  Retrieved from https://www.basecampconnect.com/hf-communications-making-a-comeback/  
• Emergency Management Australia. (1997). Four-Wheel-Drive Vehicle Operation. In Australian Emergency Manuals Series Part IV: Skills for Emergency Services Personnel, Manual 8 within Manual 37. Canberra: Paragon Printers. Retrieved from http://www.em.gov.au/Documents/Manual37-4WDVehicleOperation.pdf 
• Emergency Management Australia. (2003). Map Reading and Navigation. In Australian Emergency Management Manual Series Part IV: Skills for Emergency Services Personnel, Manual 36. Canberra: National Capital Printing. Retrieved from https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/media/1993/manual-36-map-reading-and-navigation.pdf  
• Gilman, D. (2014). Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Humanitarian Response. OCHA Policy and Studies Series. OCHA Policy Development and Studies Branch. Retrieved from https://www.unocha.org/publications/report/world/unmanned-aerial-vehicles-humanitarian-response 
• MCA. (n.d.) Two-Way Radio Etiquette. Retrieved from https://callmc.com/two-way-radio-etiquette-basic-rules-of-radio-communication/ 
• Oren, C., & Verity, A. (2020, June 6). Artificial Intelligence (AI) Applied to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and its Impact on Humanitarian Action. Retrieved from ICT4Peace website: https://ict4peace.org/activities/ocha-report-on-ai-unmanned-aerial-vehicles-uavs-and-humanitarian-operations/ 
• Puig Larrauri, H., & Meier, P. (2015, September 1). Peacekeepers in the Sky: The Use of Unmanned Unarmed Aerial Vehicles for Peacekeeping. Retrieved from ICT4Peace website: https://ict4peace.org/activities/peacekeepers-in-the-sky-the-use-of-unmanned-unarmed-aerial-vehicles-for-peacekeeping/ 
• Roberts, D. L. (2005). Staying alive: Safety and security guidelines for humanitarian volunteers in conflict areas (Revised and updated ed.). International Committee of the Red Cross. Retrieved from https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0717.pdf 
• The International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC). (2009). Principles of Remote Sensing: An introductory textbook, ITC Educational Textbook Series, 2, fourth edition. Enschede: The Netherlands. Retrieved from https://www.itc.nl/library/papers_2009/general/principlesremotesensing.pdf  
• United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR). (n.d). UN ASIGN. UNITAR Sustainable Development Goals. Retrieved from https://www.unitar.org/sustainable-development-goals/united-nations-satellite-centre-unosat/our-portfolio/un-asign  
• United Nations Office for Humanitarian Affairs. (2018). United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) Field Handbook (7th edition)
• United Nations Satellite Centre (UNOSAT). (n.d.). Services [Webpage]. Retrieved from https://unosat.org/services/ 
• United Nations World Food Programme. (n.d.) Using drones to deliver critical humanitarian aid. Retrieved from https://drones.wfp.org/updates/using-drones-deliver-critical-humanitarian-aid 

CHAPTER 7

• Directorate-General for Humanitarian Aid. (2004). Generic Security Guide for Humanitarian Organisations. European Commission. Retrieved from http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/D722F5A20C9EB443C1256F510036AF53-generic_security_guide_echo_2004.pdf  
• International Association of Professionals in Humanitarian Assistance and Protection. (n.d.). Staff Safety and Security. PHAP. Retrieved from https://phap.org/theme-staff-safety  
• Peacekeeping Best Practices Unit. (2003). Handbook on United Nations Multidimensional Peacekeeping Operations. New York: United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations. Retrieved from http://www.peacekeepingbestpractices.unlb.org/Pbps/library/Handbook%20on%20UN%20PKOs.pdf  
• Roberts, D. L. (2005). Staying alive: Safety and security guidelines for humanitarian volunteers in conflict areas (Revised and updated ed.). International Committee of the Red Cross. [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0717.pdf  
• United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations. (1995). United Nations Stress Management Booklet. Turin: The International Training Centre of the International Labour Organization. Retrieved from http://www.the-ecentre.net/resources/e_library/doc/UN%20Stress%20Management%20Booklet.pdf  
• United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations. (2008). Management of Prison Support Programmes in Peace Operations. Retrieved from http://unrol.org/files/DPKO%20Prisons%20Training%20Pack.pdf  
• United Nations Development Programme. (2015). End-of-Assignment Handbook for UN Volunteers. Retrieved from  https://issuu.com/unvolunteers/docs/volunteer_toolkit_end_assignment 
• United Nations Office for Humanitarian Affairs. (2018). United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) Field Handbook (7th edition)
• United Nations Rule of Law. (2008). Prison Support Guidance Manual: Annex 11: End-of-Assignment Report. Retrieved from http://www.unrol.org/files/Annex11EndofAssignmentReport.doc 
• United Nations Rule of Law. (2008). Prison Support Guidance Manual: Annex 12: Handover Notes. Retrieved from http://www.unrol.org/files/Annex12HandoverNotes.doc

Annex

Phonetic Alphabet with letter pronunciation

Numbering with digit pronunciation

For better understanding, numbers are transmitted digit by digit, except that exact multiples of hundred and thousand are spoken as such. Some examples of the pronunciation of numbers are below:

Signal quality is reported as signal strength or readability as depicted below:

Radio procedure words

Map of Peace Operations 2023/2024